 | Ecological and environmental physiology of birds / J.E.P.W.Bicudo, W.A.Buttemer, M.A.Chappell, J.T.Pearson, C.Bech. - Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. - xv, 317 p.: ill. - (Ecological and environmental physiology series / ser. ed.: W.Burggren; vol.2). - Bibliogr.: p.254-308. - Ind.: p.309-317. - ISBN 978-0-19-922845-4
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Acknowledgements .............................................. xii
Foreword ..................................................... xiii
1 Introduction - Blueprint of a Bird (Bauplan/Body plan) ....... 1
1.1 What is a Bird? ......................................... 1
1.2 Evolution of Birds ...................................... 2
1.3 Summary of Passerine Bird Phylogeny ..................... 6
1.4 Evolution of Feathers ................................... 8
1.5 Developmental Biology of Feathers ...................... 10
1.6 Origin and Evolution of Flight ......................... 12
1.7 Energy Requirements for Flight ......................... 15
1.8 Migration .............................................. 19
Modes of Locomotion .................................... 20
Molting ................................................ 20
Migration Flocks ....................................... 21
Nocturnal Migration .................................... 21
Evolutionary Aspects ................................... 22
Adaptations ............................................ 23
1.9 Flightlessness ......................................... 24
1.10 Overview ............................................... 26
2 General Physiological Principles ............................ 28
2.1 Gas Diffusion .......................................... 28
2.2 Gas Exchange ........................................... 29
The Bird Lung .......................................... 30
The Bird Egg ........................................... 32
2.3 Temperature and Thermal Exchanges ...................... 34
Radiation .............................................. 35
Conduction ............................................. 36
Convection ............................................. 37
Evaporation ............................................ 38
Heat Balance ........................................... 39
Thermoneutrality ....................................... 40
2.4 Body Size .............................................. 41
2.5 Water and Ion Fluxes ................................... 43
Osmosis ................................................ 44
Bird Regulation of Water and Ion Fluxes ................ 45
Salt Glands ............................................ 48
3 Physiological Bases of Fecundity/Longevity Tradeoffs ........ 49
3.1 Costs of Egg Laying .................................... 49
Nutrient and Energy Demands ............................ 49
Self-Maintenance/Egg Production Tradeoffs .............. 54
Fitness Consequences ................................... 56
3.2 Male Mating Costs ...................................... 59
Testosterone Phenology ................................. 59
Behavioral Effects of Testosterone ..................... 62
Physiological Effects of Testosterone .................. 64
3.3 Costs of Parenting ..................................... 75
Costs of Incubation .................................... 76
Costs of Chick Rearing ................................. 80
3.4 Oxidative Stress and Longevity ......................... 86
Oxidative Stress ....................................... 86
Reactive 02 Species Production ......................... 87
Antioxidant Defenses ................................... 92
Membrane Lipids and Peroxidation Resistance ............ 93
4 Adaptations: Obtaining and Processing Food .................. 99
4.1 Energy and Nutrition .................................. 102
4.2 Energy and Structure and Function ..................... 104
4.3 Digestive Adaptation .................................. 106
Chemical Reactor Theory ............................... 107
4.4 Digestive Efficiency .................................. 110
Phenotypic Flexibility ................................ 112
4.5 Modulation of Digestive Enzymes ....................... 113
4.6 Modulation of Absorption Rate ......................... 115
4.7 Modulation of Retention Time .......................... 118
Geometric Analysis .................................... 120
4.8 Digestion Rate and Digestive Efficiency ............... 120
4.9 Handling and Digestion ................................ 123
4.10 Morphological Adjustments of the Gastrointestinal
Tract ................................................. 127
4.11 Adjustments during Reproduction ....................... 128
4.12 Adjustments in Migrant Birds .......................... 128
4.13 Plant Secondary Metabolites ........................... 131
5 Adaptations: Living in Specific Environments ............... 134
5.1 Desert and Arid Environments .......................... 134
Evaporative Water Loss ................................ 136
Arid Environment and Phenotypic Plasticity in Birds ... 139
Hyperthermia .......................................... 141
Cloacal Evaporation ................................... 143
Energy Expenditure and Water Influx in the Field ...... 145
Controllable Vascular Thermal Radiator ................ 146
5.2 Low Temperatures ...................................... 147
Metabolic Heat Production ............................. 148
Adjustments to Basal Metabolic Rate ................... 148
Non-Shivering Thermogenesis ........................... 150
Heat from Digestion ................................... 151
Heat Derived from Activity ............................ 151
Thermal Conductance ................................... 152
Hibernation and Torpor ................................ 153
Behavioral Adaptations ................................ 156
Adaptations to Low Food Supply ........................ 156
Coping with Global Warming? ........................... 157
5.3 High Altitude ......................................... 158
Constraints at High Altitude .......................... 158
Respiratory Adaptations ............................... 161
Water Loss and Thermoregulation ....................... 163
Wind Speeds ........................................... 165
5.4 Marine Environment .................................... 167
Energetics of Reproduction ............................ 167
Thermal Consequences of a Marine Lifestyle ............ 168
Coping with High Salinity ............................. 171
5.5 Diving and Swimming ................................... 172
Surface Swimming versus Sub-surface Swimming .......... 173
Thermal Exchanges while Swimming ...................... 178
Diving and Foraging Behavior .......................... 182
Dive Capacity ......................................... 185
6 Adaptations: Neural and Sensory ............................ 187
6.1 Response of Birds to Novel Environments ............... 189
6.2 Chemical Senses ....................................... 192
Predator Detection .................................... 192
Foraging, Orientation, and Navigation ................. 193
6.3 Magnetoreception ...................................... 197
Field Studies ......................................... 199
6.4 Visual Capacity ....................................... 200
Night Vision .......................................... 200
Eye Size and Foraging Methods ......................... 201
6.5 Vocalization .......................................... 202
7 Adaptations: Developmental Physiology ...................... 208
7.1 Reproduction and Development .......................... 208
Nest Environments, Eggs, and Incubation ............... 209
Neonate and Development ............................... 218
8 Approaches and Techniques .................................. 226
8.1 Methods for Measuring Energy Expenditure and
Movement .............................................. 226
Patterns of Free-living Birds ......................... 226
Free-living Energy Expenditure ........................ 227
Temporal Considerations ............................... 228
Calibration Requirements .............................. 229
Size Considerations ................................... 231
Recapture and Mobility Considerations ................. 232
8.2 Measuring Movement Patterns ........................... 234
Electronic Methods .................................... 234
Stable Isotopic Methods ............................... 235
8.3 Flight Energy Requirements ............................ 237
Mass Loss in the Field ................................ 238
Wind Tunnel Mass Loss, Metabolic, and Heart Rate
Measurements .......................................... 238
8.4 Evolutionary and Ecological Functional Genomics ....... 240
Studies on Birds ...................................... 241
8.5 Molecular Biology ..................................... 242
MicroRNAs ............................................. 242
Microarrays ........................................... 243
Phenotypic Plasticity ................................. 245
8.6 Variability Analysis .................................. 246
Levy Flight (or Walk) Searching Patterns .............. 246
9 Conclusions and Future Directions .......................... 248
9.1 Responses to Habitat Variation ........................ 248
9.2 Changes in Movement Patterns and Food Use ............. 249
9.3 Temperature Effects on Development .................... 250
9.4 Maternal Effects on Development ....................... 251
9.5 Establishing Physiological Health Indices ............. 251
9.6 Physiological Performance Measures .................... 252
Bibliography ............................................... 254
Index ......................................................... 309
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