Preface page ................................................... xi
Acknowledgements ............................................. xiii
List of Abbreviations .......................................... xv
1 Introduction ................................................. 1
1.1 Categories of Waste and Waste Generation in the
Modern World ............................................ 1
1.2 General Disposal Options ............................... 11
1.3 Radiation Issues ....................................... 19
1.4 Waste Disposal and the Oklo Natural Nuclear
Reactors ............................................... 21
1.5 Nuclear Accidents and the Lessons Learnt ............... 25
References ............................................. 31
2 Materials Toxicity and Biological Effects ................... 37
2.1 Metals ................................................. 38
2.2 Compounds .............................................. 51
2.3 Asbestos ............................................... 51
References .................................................. 55
3 Glass and Ceramic Based Systems and General Processing
Methods ..................................................... 57
3.1 Glass Formation ........................................ 58
3.2 Types of Glass ......................................... 61
3.3 Ceramics ............................................... 62
3.4 Glass-Ceramics ......................................... 63
3.5 Glass and Ceramic Based Composite Systems .............. 68
3.6 Processing of Glass and Ceramic Materials .............. 68
References .................................................. 71
4 Materials Characterization .................................. 75
4.1 Chemical Analysis ...................................... 75
4.2 Thermal Analysis ....................................... 76
4.3 Structural Analysis .................................... 78
4.4 Mechanical Properties .................................. 81
4.5 Chemical Durability and Standardized Tests ............. 87
4.6 Radiation Stability .................................... 92
4.7 Other Properties Relevant to Wasteforms ................ 94
4.8 Use of Nonradioactive Surrogates ....................... 94
References .................................................. 96
5 Radioactive Wastes ......................................... 101
5.1 Sources and Waste Stream Compositions ................. 101
5.2 General Immobilization Options ........................ 111
References ................................................. 115
6 Immobilization by Vitrification ............................ 121
6.1 Vitrification History and the Advancement of Melter
Design ................................................ 121
6.2 Difficult Waste Constituents .......................... 144
6.3 Effect of Specific Batch Additives on Melting
Performance ........................................... 151
6.4 Types of Glass and Candidate Glass Requirements ....... 151
6.5 Glass-Forming Ability ................................. 168
6.6 Alternative Methods for Producing Glassy
Wasteforms ............................................ 169
References ................................................. 177
7 Immobilization of Radioactive Materials as a Ceramic
Wasteform .................................................. 185
7.1 Titanate and Zirconate Ceramics ....................... 185
7.2 Phosphate Ceramics .................................... 203
7.3 Aluminosilicate Ceramics .............................. 207
7.4 Alternative Ceramics .................................. 209
7.5 Cement Based Systems .................................. 211
References ................................................. 212
8 Immobilization of Radioactive Materials as a Glass-
Ceramic Wasteform .......................................... 221
8.1 Barium Aluminosilicate Glass-Ceramics ................. 222
8.2 Barium Titanium Silicate Glass-Ceramics ............... 222
8.3 Calcium Magnesium Silicate Glass-Ceramics ............. 222
8.4 Calcium Titanium Silicate Glass-Ceramics .............. 227
8.5 Basaltic Glass-Ceramics ............................... 228
8.6 Zirconolite Based Glass-Ceramics ...................... 230
8.7 Alternative Silicate Based Glass-Ceramics ............. 234
8.8 Phosphate Based Glass-Ceramics ........................ 234
References ................................................. 237
9 Novel Hosts for the Immobilization of Special or Unusual
Categories of Radioactive Wastes ........................... 241
9.1 Silicate Glasses ...................................... 241
9.2 Phosphate Glasses ..................................... 246
9.3 Alternative Vitrification Routes ...................... 249
9.4 Ceramic-Based Hosts ................................... 251
9.5 Glass-Encapsulated Composite and Hybrid Systems ....... 253
9.6 Oxynitride Glasses .................................... 259
9.7 Plutonium Disposition ................................. 260
References ................................................. 266
10 Properties of Radioactive Wasteforms ....................... 275
10.1 Thermal Stability ..................................... 275
10.2 Chemical Durability ................................... 276
10.3 Radiation Stability ................................... 311
10.4 Natural Analogues ..................................... 324
10.5 Mechanical Properties ................................. 328
10.6 Alternative Properties ................................ 333
References ................................................. 334
11 Structural and Modelling Studies ........................... 343
11.1 Structural Studies .................................... 343
11.2 Modelling Studies ..................................... 350
References ................................................. 357
12 Sources and Compositions of Nonradioactive Toxic and
Hazardous Wastes, and Common Disposal Routes ............... 361
12.1 Incinerator Wastes .................................... 365
12.2 Sewage and Dredging Sludges ........................... 368
12.3 Zinc Hydrometallurgical and Red Mud Wastes ............ 370
12.4 Blast Furnace Slags and Electric Arc Furnace Dusts .... 370
12.5 Alternative Metallurgical Wastes and Slags ............ 370
12.6 Metal Finishing and Plating Wastes .................... 371
12.7 Coal Ash and Fly Ash from Thermal Power Stations ...... 374
12.8 Cement Dust and Clay-Refining Wastes .................. 379
12.9 Tannery Industry Wastes ............................... 379
12.10 Asbestos ............................................. 380
12.11 Medical Wastes ....................................... 380
12.12 Electrical and Electronic Wastes ..................... 383
12.13 Alternative Wastes ................................... 384
References ................................................. 385
13 Vitrification of Nonradioactive Toxic and Hazardous
Wastes ..................................................... 389
13.1 Incinerator Wastes .................................... 392
13.2 Sewage and Dredging Sludges ........................... 397
13.3 Zinc Hydrometallurgical and Red Mud Wastes ............ 398
13.4 Blast Furnace Slags and Electric Arc Furnace Dusts .... 399
13.5 Alternative Metallurgical Wastes and Slags ............ 401
13.6 Metal Finishing and Plating Wastes .................... 403
13.7 Coal Ash and Fly Ash from Thermal Power Stations ...... 404
13.8 Cement Dust, Clay-Refining and Tannery Industry
Wastes ................................................ 406
13.9 Asbestos .............................................. 406
13.10 Medical Waste ........................................ 407
13.11 Electrical and Electronic Wastes ..................... 408
13.12 Alternative Wastes ................................... 408
13.13 Mixed Nonradioactive Hazardous Wastes ................ 409
13.14 Glass-Ceramics for Nonradioactive Waste
Immobilization ........................................ 410
References ................................................. 420
14 Alternative Treatment Processes, and Characterization,
Properties and Applications of Nonradioactive
Wasteforms ................................................. 429
14.1 Alternatives to Vitrification ......................... 429
14.2 Use of Alternative Waste Sources to Prepare New
Materials ............................................. 435
14.3 Use of Waste Glass to Prepare New Materials ........... 435
14.4 Characterization, Properties and Applications of
Nonradioactive Wasteforms ............................. 436
14.5 Applications .......................................... 444
References ................................................. 445
15 Influence of Organic, Micro-Organism and Microbial
Activity on Wasteform Integrity ............................ 451
15.1 Micro-Organism Activity and Transport Mechanisms ...... 452
15.2 Repository Environments ............................... 454
15.3 Repository Analogues .................................. 457
15.4 Wasteforms ............................................ 458
References ................................................. 462
16 Concluding Remarks, Comparisons between Radioactive and
Nonradioactive Waste Immobilization, and Outlook for
the Future ................................................. 465
16.1 Mixed Radioactive and Nonradioactive Wastes ........... 465
16.2 System and Wasteform Comparisons ...................... 467
16.3 Immediate and Short-Term Future Outlook ............... 473
16.4 Medium and Longer Term Future Outlook ................. 474
16.5 Choosing a Wasteform .................................. 479
16.6 Wasteform Characterization ............................ 486
16.7 Standards, Regulatory Requirements, and Performance
Assessments ........................................... 487
16.8 Overall Conclusions ................................... 489
References ................................................. 490
Index ......................................................... 493
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