PREFACE ....................................................... vii
SUMMARY ........................................................ ix
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................... 1
Chapter 2: STATISTICAL PREREQUISITES ............................ 5
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................. 5
2 SCALES AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT .............................. 6
2.1 Scales of measurement ................................... 6
2.2 Units of measurement .................................... 7
3 GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA ............................... 7
4 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ....................................... 9
5 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS ................................... 13
5.1 Normal distribution .................................... 13
5.2 Binomial distribution .................................. 15
5.3 Poisson distribution ................................... 16
5.4 Distribution of χ2 ..................................... 17
5.5 Distribution of student's .............................. 18
6 ESTIMATION .................................................. 20
6.1 Bias, precision and accuracy ........................... 20
6.2 Estimators ............................................. 22
6.3 Estimating accuracy .................................... 23
7 REGRESSION AND CORRELATION ANALYSIS ......................... 25
7.1 Simple linear regression ............................... 25
7.2 Correlation analysis ................................... 26
7.3 Multiple regression analysis ........................... 26
7.4 Nonlinear regression ................................... 27
8 MOVING AVERAGE .............................................. 27
9 SMOOTHENING BY FITTING EQUATIONS ............................ 28
10 FREEHAND FITTING ............................................ 29
Chapter 3: INSTRUMENTS ......................................... 33
1 DIAMETER-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS .............................. 33
1.1 Calipers ............................................... 33
1.2 Biltmore stick ......................................... 35
1.3 Diameter tapes ......................................... 36
1.4 Permanent diameter tapes ............................... 36
1.5 Wheeler's pentaprism ................................... 37
1.6 Finnish parabolic caliper .............................. 38
1.7 Вarr and stroud optical dendrometer .................... 39
2 RELASCOPES AND PRISMS ....................................... 39
2.1 Angle gauges ........................................... 39
2.2 Kramer's dendrometer ................................... 39
2.3 Bitterlich's mirror relascope .......................... 40
2.4 Wide-scale mirror relascope ............................ 43
2.5 Bitterlich's telerelascope ............................. 44
2.6 Prisms ................................................. 45
3 TREE HEIGHT ................................................. 47
3.1 Telescopic poles ....................................... 47
3.2 Hypsometers ............................................ 47
3.3 Hypsometer according to the trigonometric principle .... 47
3.4 Baseline slope correction .............................. 51
3.5 Hypsometer according to the geometrical principle ...... 54
4 BLUME-LEISS RANGE-TRACER DRUM ............................... 56
5 TREE CROWN AND FOLIAGE ...................................... 57
6 SHORT-TERM RADIAL GROWTH RESPONSES .......................... 57
7 INCREMENT CORES ............................................. 58
8 BARK THICKNESS .............................................. 59
9 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INSTRUMENTATION ...................... 59
9.1 Laser dendrometer LEDHA ................................ 60
9.2 Criterion 400 laser dendrometer ........................ 62
9.3 Digital hypsometer forestor vertex ..................... 62
Chapter 4: SINGLE-TREE MEASUREMENTS ............................ 63
1 MEASUREMENTS ON STANDING TREES .............................. 63
1.1 Age .................................................... 63
1.2 Diameter and basal area ................................ 64
1.3 Tree height ............................................ 67
1.4 Stem form .............................................. 68
1.5 Tree volume ............................................ 75
1.6 Bark thickness ......................................... 78
1.7 Tree crown and foliage ................................. 80
1.8 Leaf surface area, leaf weight and sapwood area ........ 83
2 VOLUME, LOG CLASSES AND WEIGHT OF FELLED TREES .............. 85
2.1 Volume ................................................. 86
2.2 Log rules, grades and classes .......................... 89
2.3 Weight ................................................. 91
Chapter 5: MEASUREMENT OF STANDS ............................... 95
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................ 95
2 AGE ......................................................... 95
3 MEAN DIAMETER ............................................... 96
3.1 Arithmetic mean diameter ............................... 96
3.2 Quadratic mean diameter ................................ 97
3.3 Basal area central diameter ............................ 98
4 DIAMETER DISTRIBUTIONS ...................................... 99
4.1 Weibull distribution .................................. 101
4.2 Beta distribution ..................................... 106
4.3 Gamma distribution .................................... 107
4.4 Johnson's SB distribution ............................. 109
4.5 Decreasing distributions .............................. 1ll
4.6 Other approaches ...................................... 113
5 STAND TABLES ............................................... 114
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 114
5.2 Parameter prediction and parameter recovery ........... 114
6 STAND HEIGHT ............................................... 116
6.1 Mean height ........................................... 116
6.2 Top height ............................................ 118
6.3 Fitting height curves ................................. 121
6.4 Precision of height estimates ......................... 124
6.5 The standardized height curve ......................... 125
7 STAND VOLUME ............................................... 127
7.1 Standard tree volume tables and functions ............. 127
7.2 Volume estimation with form height and volume
series ................................................ 128
7.3 Stand volume tables and functions ..................... 129
7.4 Estimation with yield tables .......................... 130
7.5 Volume estimation from felled sample trees ............ 131
7.6 Critical height sampling .............................. 133
8 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF TREES .............................. 134
8.1 Tests of randomness ................................... 134
8.2 Spatial structure ..................................... 137
8.3 Structural diversity .................................. 139
9 STAND DENSITY .............................................. 140
9.1 Area-related indices .................................. 140
9.2 Distance-related indices .............................. 146
Chapter 6: TAPER TABLES AND FUNCTIONS ......................... 149
1 TAPER TABLES ............................................... 149
2 STEM PROFILE MODELS ........................................ 151
2.1 Introduction .......................................... 151
2.2 Taper functions ....................................... 152
2.3 Polynomials and segmented polynomials ................. 156
Chapter 7: TREE VOLUME TABLES AND EQUATIONS ................... 163
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................... 163
2 VOLUME EQUATIONS WITH ONE PREDICTOR VARIABLE ............... 165
2.1 Simple tariff functions ............................... 165
2.2 The incorporation of height into the tariff
function .............................................. 167
3 EQUATIONS WITH TWO PREDICTOR VARIABLES ..................... 170
3.1 Graphic methods ....................................... 170
3.2 Regression equations .................................. 171
4 EQUATIONS WITH MORE THAN TWO PREDICTOR VARIABLES ........... 175
5 MERCHANTABLE VOLUME ........................................ 177
Chapter 8: TREE AND STAND BIOMASS ............................. 183
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................... 183
2 BIOMASS COMPONENTS ......................................... 184
2.1 Branches .............................................. 184
2.2 Foliage ............................................... 185
2.3 Stemwood weight ....................................... 185
2.4 Bark weight ........................................... 186
2.5 Root weight ........................................... 186
2.6 Pooling of data ....................................... 187
2.7 Randomized branch and importance sampling ............. 187
3 TREE-LEVEL REGRESSION MODELS ............................... 188
4 ADDITIVITY OF BIOMASS COMPONENTS ........................... 192
4.1 Stem biomass .......................................... 193
4.2 Branch and needle biomass ............................. 194
4.3 Root biomass .......................................... 194
5 DUMMY-VARIABLES FOR TREE SPECIES ........................... 196
6 RATIO ESTIMATORS AND CLUSTER SAMPLING ...................... 198
Chapter 9: GROWTH AND YIELD ................................... 201
1 DEFINITIONS ................................................ 201
2 THE GROWTH OF SINGLE TREES ................................. 202
2.1 Growth parameters ..................................... 202
2.2 Stem analysis ......................................... 203
2.3 Single-tree models .................................... 209
3 SITE CLASS AND SITE INDEX .................................. 213
3.1 Introduction .......................................... 213
3.2 Site index curves ..................................... 215
3.3 Site index equations .................................. 217
4 THE GROWTH OF STANDS ....................................... 222
4.1 Estimating stand growth based on actual
measurements .......................................... 222
4.2 Stand table projection ................................ 226
4.3 Recent developments ................................... 227
Chapter 10: SAMPLING FOR FOREST INVENTORIES ................... 229
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................... 229
1.1 Sampling units ........................................ 232
2 PLOT SAMPLING .............................................. 232
2.1 Plot shape ............................................ 232
2.2 Plot size ............................................. 233
2.3 Plots on stand boundaries ............................. 238
2.4 Slope Correction ...................................... 240
3 POINT SAMPLING ............................................. 241
3.1 Basic principles ...................................... 241
3.2 Choice of basal area factor ........................... 246
3.3 Nonsampling errors .................................... 246
3.4 Efficiency of point sampling .......................... 249
4 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING ..................................... 251
4.1 Sample size ........................................... 256
5 ERROR PROPAGATION .......................................... 259
6 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING ................................. 262
6.1 Basic principles ...................................... 262
6.2 Allocation methods .................................... 266
6.3 Poststratification .................................... 268
6.4 Block Sampling ........................................ 269
7 REGRESSION AND RATIO ESTIMATORS ............................ 271
7.1 Regression estimators ................................. 271
7.2 Ratio estimators ...................................... 273
8 DOUBLE SAMPLING (TWO-PHASE SAMPLING) ....................... 276
8.1 Double sampling for regression estimators ............. 276
8.2 Double sampling for stratification .................... 280
8.3 Double sampling for ratio estimators .................. 281
9 CLUSTER SAMPLING ........................................... 282
9.1 Definitions ........................................... 282
9.2 Estimators ............................................ 284
10 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING ........................................ 287
10.1 Two-stage sampling .................................... 287
10.2 Three-stage sampling .................................. 290
11 STRIP SAMPLING ............................................. 292
12 SAMPLING WITH UNEQUAL SELECTION PROBABILITIES .............. 295
12.1 List sampling (PPS sampling) .......................... 295
12.2 3P sampling ........................................... 298
13 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING ........................................ 300
14 SAMPLING PROPORTIONS ....................................... 303
14.1 Simple random sampling ................................ 303
14.2 Cluster sampling ...................................... 305
15 ESTIMATING CHANGES ......................................... 308
15.1 Independent and matched sampling ...................... 308
15.2 Sampling with partial replacement (SPR) ............... 309
16 LINE INTERSECT SAMPLING .................................... 314
Chapter 11: REMOTE SENSING IN FOREST MENSURATION .............. 317
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................... 317
2 FUNDAMENTALS OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY ......................... 318
3 DENDROMETRIC DATA .......................................... 323
3.1 Tree height ........................................... 323
3.2 Number of tree crowns ................................. 332
3.3 Crown closure ......................................... 334
3.4 Crown dimensions ...................................... 336
3.5 Age ................................................... 339
3.6 Profile of the stand's growing space .................. 339
4 ESTIMATION OF STAND VOLUME ................................. 341
5 ESTIMATION OF VOLUME INCREMENT ............................. 344
APPENDIX ...................................................... 347
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................. 353
INDEX ......................................................... 377
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