Preface and Acknowledgments .................................... ix
1 Introduction and Adhesion Theories ........................... 1
1.1 Definition of Adhesives and Adhesive Bonding ............ 1
1.2 Functions of Adhesives .................................. 2
1.3 Classification of Adhesives ............................. 3
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Joining Using
Adhesives ............................................... 3
1.4.1 Advantages ....................................... 3
1.4.2 Disadvantages .................................... 4
1.5 Requirements of a Good Bond ............................. 4
1.5.1 Proper Choice of Adhesive ........................ 5
1.5.2 Good Joint Design ................................ 5
1.5.3 Cleanliness ...................................... 5
1.5.4 Wetting .......................................... 5
1.5.5 Adhesive Bonding Process ......................... 5
1.6 Introduction to Theories of Adhesion .................... 6
1.6.1 Mechanical Theory ................................ 7
1.6.2 Electrostatic (Electronic) Theory ................ 8
1.6.3 Diffusion Theory ................................. 8
1.6.4 Wetting Theory ................................... 9
1.6.5 Chemical Bonding ................................ 11
1.6.5.1 Acid-Base Theory ....................... 13
1.6.6 Weak Boundary Layer Theory ...................... 13
1.7 Definition of Failure Modes ............................ 14
1.8 Mechanisms of Bond Failure ............................. 17
2 Surface Tension and Its Measurement ......................... 21
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 21
2.2 What is an Interface? .................................. 21
2.3 Surface Tension ........................................ 21
2.4 Surface Free Energy .................................... 23
2.4.1 Surface Energy of Solids ........................ 23
2.4.2 Work of Adhesion ................................ 24
2.5 Contact Angle (Young's Equation) ....................... 25
2.6 Surface Tension Measurement ............................ 25
2.6.1 Measurement for Liquids: du Nouy Ring and
Wilhelmy Plate Methods .......................... 26
2.6.2 Measurement for Solids: Liquid Homolog Series ... 29
2.7 Fractional Polarity .................................... 33
2.8 Critical Surface Tension ............................... 33
3 Material Surface Preparation Techniques ..................... 37
3.1 General Considerations ................................. 37
3.2 Surface Treatment of Metals ............................ 38
3.3 Cleaning (Degreasing) Metals ........................... 38
3.3.1 General Sequence of Cleaning .................... 38
3.3.1.1 Solvent Cleaning ....................... 39
3.3.1.2 Chemical Treatment ..................... 40
3.3.1.3 Priming ................................ 40
3.4 Surface Treatment of Plastics .......................... 40
3.4.1 Effect of Treatment on Plastic Surfaces ......... 40
3.4.2 Surface Cleaning ................................ 41
3.4.3 Mechanical Treatment (Surface Roughening) ....... 41
3.4.4 Corona Treatment ................................ 41
3.4.5 Flame Treatment ................................. 42
3.4.6 Plasma Treatment ................................ 42
3.4.7 Chemical Etching ................................ 43
3.5 Methods for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Surface
Preparation ............................................ 45
3.5.1 Dyne Liquids .................................... 45
3.5.2 Water-Break Test ................................ 45
3.5.3 Contact-Angle Test .............................. 46
4 Classification of Adhesives and Compounds ................... 47
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 47
4.2 Adhesive Composition Formulation ....................... 47
4.2.1 Adhesive Base or Binder ......................... 47
4.2.2 Hardener (for Thermosetting Adhesives) .......... 47
4.2.3 Solvents ........................................ 48
4.2.4 Diluents ........................................ 48
4.2.5 Fillers ......................................... 48
4.2.6 Carriers or Reinforcements ...................... 48
4.2.7 Other Additives ................................. 48
4.3 Classification of Adhesives ............................ 49
4.3.1 Source: Natural vs. Synthetic Adhesives ......... 49
4.3.1.1 Natural Adhesives ...................... 49
4.3.1.2 Synthetic Adhesives .................... 50
4.3.2 Classification by Chemical Composition .......... 50
4.3.2.1 Thermosetting Adhesives ................ 50
4.3.2.2 Thermoplastic Adhesives ................ 51
4.3.2.3 Elastomeric Adhesives .................. 51
4.3.2.4 Adhesive Alloys ........................ 52
4.3.3 Classification by Function ...................... 53
4.3.3.1 Structural Adhesives ................... 53
4.3.3.2 Non-structural Adhesives ............... 53
4.3.4 Classification by Physical Form ................. 54
4.3.4.1 Liquid Adhesives ....................... 54
4.3.4.2 Paste Adhesives ........................ 54
4.3.4.3 Tape and Film Adhesives ................ 55
4.3.4.4 Powder or Granule Adhesives ............ 55
4.3.5 Classification by Mode of Application and
Setting ......................................... 55
4.3.6 Classification by Specific Adherends or
Applications .................................... 55
4.3.7 Society of Manufacturing Engineering
Classification .................................. 57
4.3.7.1 Chemically Reactive Types .............. 57
4.3.7.2 Evaporative or Diffusion Adhesives ..... 58
4.3.7.3 Hot-Melt Adhesives ..................... 58
4.3.7.4 Delayed-Tack Adhesives ................. 59
4.3.7.5 Tape and Film Adhesives ................ 59
4.3.7.6 Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives ........... 59
4.3.8 Classification by Rayner ........................ 59
4.3.8.1 Thermosetting Resin Adhesives .......... 59
4.3.8.2 Thermoplastic Resin Adhesives .......... 60
4.3.8.3 Two-Polymer Adhesives (Alloys) ......... 60
4.3.9 Additional Classification ....................... 61
5 Characteristics of Adhesive Materials ....................... 63
5.1 Acrylics ............................................... 64
5.2 Allyl Diglycol Carbonate (CR-39) ....................... 65
5.3 Alloyed or Modified (Two-Polymer) Adhesives ............ 65
5.4 Anaerobic Adhesives/Sealants ........................... 67
5.5 Aromatic Polymer Adhesives (Polyaromatics) ............. 68
5.6 Asphalt ................................................ 69
5.7 Butyl Rubber Adhesives ................................. 69
5.8 Cellulose Ester Adhesives .............................. 73
5.9 Cellulose Ether Adhesives .............................. 73
5.10 Conductive Adhesives ................................... 73
5.10.1 Electrically Conductive Adhesives (Chip-
bonding Adhesives) ............................. 73
5.10.2 Thermally Conductive Adhesives ................. 75
5.11 Cyanoacrylate Adhesives ................................ 75
5.12 Delayed-Tack Adhesives ................................. 77
5.13 Elastomeric Adhesives .................................. 79
5.14 Epoxy Adhesives ........................................ 80
5.14.1 Hardening Agents for Epoxy Adhesives ............ 82
5.15 Epoxy-Phenolic Adhesives ............................... 82
5.16 Epoxy-Polysulfide Adhesives ............................ 83
5.17 Film and Tape Adhesives (see also Section 5.3) ......... 84
5.18 Furane Adhesives ....................................... 87
5.19 Hot-Melt Adhesives ..................................... 88
5.19.1 Foamable Hot-Melt Adhesives ..................... 89
5.19.2 Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA) and Polyolefin
Resins .......................................... 90
5.19.3 Polyamide (Nylon) and Polyester Resins .......... 90
5.19.4 Other Hot-Melt Adhesives ........................ 90
5.20 Inorganic Adhesives (Cements) .......................... 92
5.20.1 Soluble Silicates (Potassium and Sodium
Silicate) ....................................... 92
5.20.2 Phosphate Cements ............................... 92
5.20.3 Basic Salts (Sorel Cements) ..................... 93
5.20.4 Litharge Cements ................................ 93
5.20.5 Sulfur Cements .................................. 93
5.20.6 Sauereisen's Adhesives .......................... 94
5.21 Melamine-Formaldehyde Adhesives (Melamines) ............ 94
5.22 Microencapsulated Adhesives ............................ 94
5.23 Natural Glues .......................................... 95
5.23.1 Vegetable Glues ................................. 95
5.23.2 Glues of Animal Origin .......................... 97
5.24 Neoprene (Polychloroprene) Adhesives .................. 100
5.25 Neoprene-Phenolic Adhesives ........................... 100
5.26 Nitrile-Epoxy (Elastomer-Epoxy) Adhesives ............. 101
5.27 Nitrile-Phenolic Adhesives ............................ 101
5.28 Nitrile Rubber Adhesive ............................... 102
5.29 Nylon Adhesives ....................................... 102
5.30 Nylon-Epoxy Adhesives ................................. 103
5.31 Phenolic Adhesives .................................... 103
5.31.1 Acid-Catalyzed Phenolics ....................... 104
5.31.2 Hot-Setting Phenolics .......................... 105
5.32 Phenoxy Adhesives ..................................... 105
5.33 Polybenzimidazole Adhesives ........................... 106
5.34 Polyester Adhesives ................................... 108
5.35 Polyimide Adhesives ................................... 108
5.36 Polyisobutylene Adhesives ............................. 109
5.37 Polystyrene Adhesives ................................. 110
5.38 Polysulfides (Thiokols) ............................... 110
5.39 Polysulfone Adhesives ................................. 111
5.40 Polyurethane Adhesives ................................ 112
5.41 Poly vinyl Acetal Adhesives ........................... 113
5.42 Poly vinyl Acetate Adhesives .......................... 114
5.43 Polyvinyl Alcohol Adhesives ........................... 115
5.44 Polyvinyl Butyral Adhesives ........................... 115
5.45 Premixed Frozen Adhesives ............................. 115
5.46 Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives .......................... 115
5.47 Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Adhesives ..................... 117
5.48 Rubber-Based Adhesives ................................ 117
5.48.1 Silicone Adhesives ............................. 118
5.49 Solvent-Based Systems ................................. 121
5.50 Thermoplastic Resin Adhesives ......................... 122
5.51 Thermoplastic Rubber (for Use in Adhesives) ........... 123
5.52 Thermosetting Resin Adhesives ......................... 123
5.53 UV-Curing Adhesives ................................... 124
5.54 Urea-Formaldehyde Adhesives (Ureas) ................... 124
5.55 Vinyl-Epoxy Adhesives ................................. 125
5.56 Vinyl-Phenolic Adhesives .............................. 125
5.57 Polyvinyl Formal-Phenolics ............................ 126
5.58 Polyvinyl Butyral-Phenolics ........................... 126
5.59 Vinyl-Resin Adhesives ................................. 126
5.60 Water-Based Adhesives ................................. 127
5.61 UV-Curing Adhesives ................................... 129
6 Adhesives for Special Adherends ............................ 137
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 137
6.2 Metals ................................................ 137
6.2.1 Aluminum and Alloys ............................ 137
6.2.2 Beryllium ...................................... 138
6.2.3 Brass and Bronze ............................... 138
6.2.4 Cadmium (Plated on Steel) ...................... 138
6.2.5 Copper and Copper Alloys ....................... 138
6.2.6 Gold ........................................... 139
6.2.7 Lead ........................................... 139
6.2.8 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys ................. 139
6.2.9 Nickel and Nickel Alloys ....................... 139
6.2.10 Plated Metals .................................. 140
6.2.11 Silver ......................................... 140
6.2.12 Steel, Mild, Carbon (Iron) ..................... 140
6.2.13 Stainless Steel ................................ 140
6.2.14 Tin ............................................ 140
6.2.15 Titanium and Titanium Alloys ................... 141
6.2.16 Tungsten and Tungsten Alloys ................... 141
6.2.17 Uranium ........................................ 141
6.2.18 Zinc and Zinc Alloys ........................... 142
6.3 Thermoplastics ........................................ 142
6.3.1 Acetal Copolymer (Celcon®) ..................... 142
6.3.2 Acetal Homopolymer (Delrin®) ................... 142
6.3.3 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) .......... 143
6.3.4 Cellulosics .................................... 143
6.3.5 Ethylene-Chlorotrifluoroethylene(E-CTFE) ....... 143
6.3.6 Fluorinated-Ethylene Propylene (FEP;
Teflon®) ....................................... 144
6.3.7 Fluoroplastics ................................. 144
6.3.8 Ionomer (Surlyn®) .............................. 144
6.3.9 Nylons (Polyamides) ............................ 144
6.3.10 Perfluoroalkoxy Resins (PFA) ................... 144
6.3.11 Phenylene-Oxide-Based Resins (Noryl®) .......... 144
6.3.12 Polyaryl Ether (Arylon T) ...................... 145
6.3.13 Polyaryl Sulfone (Astrel 360; 3M Co.) .......... 145
6.3.14 Polycarbonate .................................. 145
6.3.15 Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE; Aclar) ..... 145
6.3.16 Polyester (Thermoplastic Polyester) ............ 146
6.3.17 Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) .................... 146
6.3.18 Polyetherimide (Ultem®) ........................ 146
6.3.19 Polyethersulfone ............................... 146
6.3.20 Polyethylene ................................... 147
6.3.21 Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) .................. 147
6.3.22 Polymethylpentene (TPX) ........................ 147
6.3.23 Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS; Ryton®) ............ 147
6.3.24 Polypropylene .................................. 147
6.3.25 Polystyrene .................................... 148
6.3.26 Polysulfone .................................... 148
6.3.27 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE; Teflon®) ........ 148
6.3.28 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) ....................... 149
6.3.29 Polyvinyl Fluoride (PVF; Tedlar®) .............. 149
6.3.30 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF; Kynar®) ......... 149
6.3.31 Styrene-Acrylonitrile (SAN; Lustran®) .......... 149
6.4 Thermosetting Plastics (Thermosets) ................... 150
6.4.1 Diallyl Phthalate (DAP) ........................ 150
6.4.2 Epoxies ........................................ 150
6.4.3 Melamine-Formaldehyde (Melamines) .............. 150
6.4.4 Phenol-Formaldehyde (Phenolics) ................ 150
6.4.5 Polyester (Thermosetting Polyester) ............ 151
6.4.6 Polyimide ...................................... 151
6.4.7 Polyurethane ................................... 151
6.4.8 Silicone Resins ................................ 151
6.4.9 Urea-Formaldehyde .............................. 151
6.5 Reinforced Plastics/Composites ........................ 151
6.6 Plastic Foams ......................................... 152
6.7 Rubbers (Elastomers) .................................. 154
6.8 Ceramics and Glass .................................... 154
7 Joint Design ............................................... 159
7.1 Basic Principles ...................................... 159
7.2 Types of Stress ....................................... 159
7.2.1 Compression .................................... 160
7.2.2 Shear .......................................... 160
7.2.3 Tension ........................................ 160
7.2.4 Peel ........................................... 161
7.2.5 Cleavage ....................................... 161
7.3 Methods of Improving Joint Efficiency ................. 161
7.4 Joint Design Criteria ................................. 163
7.5 Typical Joint Designs ................................. 166
7.6 Peeling of Adhesive Joints ............................ 168
7.7 Stiffening Joints ..................................... 168
7.8 Cylindrical Joints .................................... 169
7.9 Angle and Corner Joints ............................... 169
7.10 Joints for Plastics and Elastomers .................... 171
7.10.1 Flexible Materials ............................. 171
7.10.2 Rigid Plastics ................................. 173
7.11 Stress Analysis of Adhesive Joints .................... 173
7.11.1 Theoretical Analysis of Stresses and Strains ... 173
7.11.2 Experimental Analyses .......................... 174
7.11.3 Failure Analyses ............................... 179
7.11.4 Methods of Stress Analysis ..................... 180
8 Adhesive Applications and Bonding Processes ................ 183
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 183
8.2 Adhesive Storage ...................................... 183
8.3 Adhesive Preparation .................................. 183
8.3.1 Small-Portion Mixer Dispensers ................. 185
8.4 Methods of Adhesive Application ....................... 185
8.4.1 Liquid Adhesives ............................... 185
8.4.1.1 Brushing .............................. 185
8.4.1.2 Flowing ............................... 186
8.4.1.3 Spraying .............................. 186
8.4.1.4 Roll Coating .......................... 186
8.4.1.5 Knife Coating ......................... 187
8.4.1.6 Silk Screening ........................ 187
8.4.1.7 Oil Can and Squeeze Bottle ............ 187
8.4.1.8 Hand Dipping .......................... 187
8.4.2 Pastes ......................................... 188
8.4.2.1 Spatulas, Knives, Trowels ............. 188
8.4.3 Powders ........................................ 188
8.4.4 Films .......................................... 189
8.4.5 Hot Melts ...................................... 189
8.4.5.1 Melt-Reservoir Systems (Tank-Type
Applications) ......................... 190
8.4.5.2 Progressive-Feed Systems .............. 190
8.5 Joint-Assembly Methods ................................ 191
8.5.1 Wet Assembly ................................... 192
8.5.2 Pressure-Sensitive and Contact Bonding ......... 192
8.5.3 Solvent Activation ............................. 192
8.5.4 Heat Activation ................................ 193
8.6 Curing ................................................ 193
8.7 Bonding Equipment ..................................... 194
8.7.1 Pressure Equipment ............................. 194
8.7.2 Heating Equipment .............................. 196
8.7.2.1 Direct Heating Curing ................. 196
8.7.2.2 Radiation Curing ...................... 197
8.7.2.3 Electric Resistance Heaters ........... 198
8.7.2.4 High-Frequency Dielectric (Radio
Frequency) Heating .................... 199
8.7.2.5 Induction Heating ..................... 199
8.7.2.6 Low-Voltage Heating ................... 200
8.7.3 Ultrasonic Activation .......................... 200
8.7.4 Adhesive Thickness ............................. 201
8.8 Weldbonding ........................................... 201
8.8.1 Weldbond Configuration ......................... 202
8.8.1.1 Advantages and Limitations ............ 204
8.8.2 Surface Preparation ............................ 204
8.8.3 Adhesive Choice ................................ 205
8.8.4 Tooling for Weldbonding ........................ 206
8.8.5 Weldbonding Techniques ......................... 206
9 Solvent Cementing of Plastics .............................. 209
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 209
9.2 Background ............................................ 209
9.2.1 Solubility Parameter ........................... 210
9.2.2 Factors Affecting Adhesive and Solvent
Bonding ........................................ 212
9.2.2.1 Solubility ............................ 212
9.2.2.2 Stress Cracking ....................... 213
9.3 Solvents for Specific Polymers ........................ 215
9.3.1 Acetal Copolymer ............................... 215
9.3.2 Acetal Homopolymer ............................. 215
9.3.3 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene ................ 216
9.3.4 Cellulosics .................................... 216
9.3.4.1 Cellulose acetate ..................... 216
9.3.4.2 Cellulose Acetate Butyrate ............ 216
9.3.4.3 Cellulose Nitrate ..................... 218
9.3.4.4 Cellulose propionate .................. 218
9.3.4.5 Ethyl Cellulose ....................... 218
9.3.5 Nylons (Polyamides) ............................ 219
9.3.6 Polycarbonate .................................. 220
9.3.7 Polystyrene .................................... 220
9.3.8 Styrene-Acrylonitrile (SAN) .................... 222
9.3.9 Polysulfone .................................... 222
9.3.10 Polybutylene Terephthalate (Valox®) ............ 222
9.3.11 Polymethylmethacrylate ......................... 223
9.3.12 Phenylene-Oxide Based Resins (Noryl®) .......... 223
9.3.13 Polyvinyl Chloride ............................. 225
9.3.14 Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC) .......... 227
9.3.15 Polyetherimide (Ultem®) ........................ 227
10 Durability of Adhesive Bonds ............................... 231
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 231
10.2 High Temperature ...................................... 233
10.2.1 Epoxies ........................................ 234
10.2.2 Modified Phenolics ............................. 235
10.2.2.1 Nitrile-Phenolic ...................... 235
10.2.2.2 Epoxy-Phenolic ........................ 235
10.2.3 Polysulfone .................................... 235
10.2.4 Silicones ...................................... 236
10.2.5 Polyaromatics .................................. 236
10.2.5.1 Polyimides ............................ 237
10.2.5.2 Polybenzimidazoles (PBIs) ............. 237
10.3 Low and Cryogenic Temperatures ........................ 237
10.4 Humidity and Water Immersion .......................... 240
10.4.1 Effects of Surface Preparation on Moisture
Exposure ....................................... 241
10.4.2 Stressed Temperature/Humidity Test ............. 242
10.4.3 Hot-Water-Soak Test ............................ 246
10.4.4 Fatigue-Life Data .............................. 248
10.5 Salt Water and Salt Spray ............................. 249
10.5.1 Seacoast Weathering Environment ................ 249
10.5.2 Salt Water Immersion ........................... 251
10.5.2.1 Nitrile-Phenolic Adhesives ............ 252
10.5.3 Boeing/Air Force Studies on Salt-Spray
Effects ........................................ 252
10.6 Weathering ............................................ 253
10.6.1 Simulated Weathering/Accelerated Testing ....... 253
10.6.2 Outdoor Weathering (Picatinny Arsenal
Studies) ....................................... 254
10.7 Chemicals and Solvents ................................ 260
10.8 Vacuum ................................................ 262
10.9 Radiation ............................................. 264
10.10 Biological ........................................... 269
10.11 Test Methods ......................................... 270
11 Testing of Adhesive Bonds .................................. 273
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 273
11.2 Tensile ............................................... 273
11.3 Shear ................................................. 274
11.4 Peel .................................................. 275
11.5 Cleavage .............................................. 276
11.6 Creep ................................................. 276
11.7 Fatigue ............................................... 277
11.8 Impact ................................................ 277
11.9 Durability ............................................ 278
11.10 Compilation of Test Methods and Practices ............ 278
11.10.1 Aging (Permanency) ............................ 278
11.10.2 Amylaceous Matter ............................. 278
11.10.3 Ash Content ................................... 279
11.10.4 Biodeterioration .............................. 279
11.10.5 Blocking Point ................................ 279
11.10.6 Characterization .............................. 279
11.10.7 Cleavage ...................................... 279
11.10.8 Chemical Reagents ............................. 279
11.10.9 Cleavage/Peel Strength ........................ 279
11.10.10 Corrosivity .................................. 280
11.10.11 Creep ........................................ 280
11.10.12 Cryogenic Temperatures ....................... 280
11.10.13 Density ...................................... 280
11.10.14 Durability (Including Weathering) ............ 280
11.10.15 Electrical Properties ........................ 280
11.10.16 Electrolytic Corrosion ....................... 281
11.10.17 Fatigue ...................................... 281
11.10.18 Filler Content ............................... 281
11.10.19 Flexural Strength ............................ 281
11.10.20 Flow Properties .............................. 281
11.10.21 Fracture Strength in Cleavage ................ 281
11.10.22 Gap-filling Adhesive Bonds ................... 281
11.10.23 Grit Content ................................. 281
11.10.24 High-Temperature Effects ..................... 282
11.10.25 Hydrogen-Ion Concentration ................... 282
11.10.26 Impact Strength .............................. 282
11.10.27 Low and Cryogenic Temperature ................ 282
11.10.28 Non-volatile Content ......................... 282
11.10.29 Odor ......................................... 282
11.10.30 Peel Strength (Stripping Strength) ........... 282
11.10.31 Penetration .................................. 283
11.10.32 pH ........................................... 283
11.10.33 Radiation Exposure (Including Light) ......... 283
11.10.34 Rubber Cement Tests .......................... 283
11.10.35 Salt Spray (Fog) Testing ..................... 283
11.10.36 Shear Strength (Tensile-Shear Strength) ...... 283
11.10.37 Specimen Preparation ......................... 284
11.10.38 Spot-Adhesion Test ........................... 285
11.10.39 Spread ....................................... 285
11.10.40 Storage Life ................................. 285
11.10.41 Strength Development ......................... 285
11.10.42 Stress-Cracking Resistance ................... 285
11.10.43 Stripping Strength ........................... 285
11.10.44 Surface Preparation .......................... 285
11.10.45 Tack ......................................... 286
11.10.46 Tensile Strength ............................. 286
11.10.47 Torque Strength .............................. 286
11.10.48 Viscosity .................................... 286
11.10.49 Volume Resistivity ........................... 286
11.10.50 Water Absorptiveness (of Paper Labels) ....... 287
11.10.51 Weathering ................................... 287
11.10.52 Wedge Test ................................... 287
11.10.53 Working Life ................................. 287
12 Quality Control ............................................ 289
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 289
12.2 Incoming Material Control ............................. 292
12.2.1 Adhesives ...................................... 292
12.2.1.1 Adhesives: Mechanical Properties ...... 293
12.2.1.2 Adhesives: Miscellaneous Properties
(Including Creep) ..................... 293
12.2.2 Surface Preparation Control .................... 294
12.2.3 Process Control of Bonding ..................... 295
12.2.3.1 Prefit ................................ 295
12.2.3.2 Adhesive Application .................. 295
12.2.3.3 Assembly .............................. 296
12.2.3.4 Curing ................................ 296
12.2.3.5 Standard Test Specimen ................ 297
12.3 Final Inspection ...................................... 297
12.4 Non-destructive Tests ................................. 297
12.4.1 Sonic Methods .................................. 297
12.4.1.1 Sonic Resonator ....................... 300
12.4.1.2 Eddy-Sonic Test Method ................ 300
12.4.1.3 Pulsed Eddy-Sonic Test Method
(Shurtronic Harmonic Bond Tester) ..... 300
12.4.1.4 Arvin Acoustic Analysis System ........ 301
12.4.2 Ultrasonic Methods ............................. 301
12.4.2.1 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Contact
Impedance Testing ..................... 302
12.4.2.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Immersion ....... 303
12.4.2.3 Ultrasonic Multiple Transducer ........ 304
12.4.3 Sweep-Frequency Resonance Method ............... 305
12.4.4 Liquid Crystals ................................ 306
12.4.5 Holography ..................................... 306
12.4.6 Thermal Image Inspection ....................... 307
12.4.7 Thermal Infrared Inspection (TIRI) ............. 308
12.4.8 Radiography .................................... 308
12.4.9 X-ray Techniques ............................... 308
12.4.10 Radioisotope Methods .......................... 308
12.4.11 Neutron Radiography ........................... 309
12.4.12 Penetrant Inspection .......................... 309
12.4.13 Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM) ............ 309
12.5 Weldbonding ........................................... 310
13 Safety, Environmental, and Economic Aspects, and Future
Trends ..................................................... 313
13.1 Safety ................................................ 313
13.2 Environmental Considerations .......................... 317
13.2.1 Environmental Trends ........................... 318
13.3 Economics ............................................. 319
13.4 Future Trends ......................................... 321
Glossary ...................................................... 323
Index ......................................................... 349
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