Preface ........................................................ xi
1 Interconnectedness in heliophysics ........................... 1
Carolus J. Schrijver and George L. Siscoe
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.2 Field-plasma-neutral interaction ........................ 2
1.3 Transport of angular momentum and energy ................ 3
1.4 Dynamo action ........................................... 4
1.5 Extreme events and habitability ......................... 6
1.6 Our remarkable, remarkably sensitive environment ........ 7
1.7 System complexity ....................................... 9
2 Long-term evolution of magnetic activity of Sun-like
stars ....................................................... 11
Carolus J. Schrijver
2.1 A brief history of the Sun: past, present, future ...... 12
2.2 Present-day solar activity ............................. 14
2.3 Stellar activity ....................................... 31
2.4 Spots, faculae, network field, and spectral
radiance ............................................... 40
2.5 Activity, rotation, and loss of angular momentum ....... 41
2.6 Dynamos: polar spots, small-scale field, and flux
dispersal .............................................. 44
2.7 Fully convective stars, brown dwarfs, and beyond ....... 46
2.8 The Maunder minimum state of solar and heliospheric
activity ............................................... 46
3 Formation and early evolution of stars and protoplanetary
disks ....................................................... 49
Lee W. Hartmann
3.1 How do stars form? ..................................... 49
3.2 Disks and angular momentum transport ................... 52
3.3 Disk winds ............................................. 55
3.4 What are young stars like? ............................. 58
3.5 What sets the initial angular momenta of stars? ........ 63
3.6 Protoplanetary disks and gravity ....................... 66
3.7 Dust disk evolution .................................... 69
3.8 Disk evaporation ....................................... 72
3.9 Exoplanets ............................................. 74
3.10 Concluding remarks ..................................... 77
4 Planetary habitability on astronomical time scales .......... 79
Donald E. Brownlee
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 79
4.2 Environmental limits for life as we know it ............ 79
4.3 The habitable zone and the effects of stellar heat ..... 81
4.4 The habitable zone and other stellar effects ........... 85
4.5 Earth before life ...................................... 86
4.6 The early history of terrestrial life .................. 89
4.7 The rise of oxygen ..................................... 90
4.8 The evolution and survival of animals .................. 92
4.9 The decline of carbon dioxide .......................... 92
4.10 The loss of oceans and the end of plate tectonics ...... 94
4.11 The red giant Sun and the fate of habitable zone
planets ................................................ 95
5 Solar internal flows and dynamo action ...................... 99
Mark S. Miesch
5.1 Magnetism with enthusiasm .............................. 99
5.2 The many faces of solar convection .................... 101
5.3 Local dynamos and the magnetic carpet ................. 112
5.4 Global dynamos or "How to build a sunspot" ............ 118
5.5 Rotational shear and meridional circulation ........... 125
5.6 Puzzles and prospects ................................. 136
Appendix: Physical characteristics of the solar
convection zone ............................................ 137
6 Modeling solar and stellar dynamos ......................... 141
Paul Charbonneau
6.1 The dynamo problem .................................... 141
6.2 Solar dynamo models ................................... 143
6.3 Modeling the solar cycle .............................. 159
6.4 Stellar dynamos ....................................... 170
6.5 Outlook ............................................... 176
7 Planetary fields and dynamos ............................... 179
Ulrich R. Christensen
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 179
7.2 Geomagnetic field ..................................... 180
7.3 Magnetic fields of other planets and satellites ....... 187
7.4 Structure and energy budget of planetary interiors .... 190
7.5 Some basics of planetary dynamos ...................... 195
7.6 Numerical geodynamo models ............................ 199
7.7 Dynamo models for Mercury and the gas planets ......... 212
7.8 Outlook ............................................... 214
8 The structure and evolution of the three-dimensional
solar wind ................................................. 217
John T. Gosling
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 217
8.2 The heliospheric current sheet ........................ 218
8.3 Latitudinal and solar-cycle variations of the solar
wind .................................................. 219
8.4 Solar wind stream structure ........................... 221
8.5 Evolution of stream structure with heliocentric
distance .............................................. 223
8.6 Transient disturbances in the solar wind .............. 231
8.7 The evolving global heliospheric magnetic field ....... 237
8.8 Long-term changes in the heliospheric magnetic
field ................................................. 241
9 The heliosphere and cosmic rays ............................ 243
J.R. Jokipii
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 243
9.2 Observed cosmic-ray time variations ................... 246
9.3 The physics of heliospheric cosmic-ray temporal
variations ............................................ 251
9.4 The transport of cosmic-ray particles in the
heliosphere ........................................... 255
9.5 Solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays .............. 259
9.6 Sample model simulations using the full transport
equation .............................................. 261
9.7 The Maunder minimum ................................... 264
9.8 On the heliospheric modulation of galactic cosmic
rays .................................................. 266
9.9 The sunspot minimum between cycles 23 and 24 .......... 267
9.10 In conclusion ......................................... 267
10 Solar spectral irradiance: measurements and models ......... 269
Judith L. Lean and Thomas N. Woods
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 269
10.2 Historical perspective ................................ 274
10.3 Measuring solar irradiance and its variations ......... 278
10.4 Understanding and modeling solar irradiance
variations ............................................ 285
10.5 Reconstructing historical irradiance changes .......... 290
10.6 Forecasting irradiance variations ..................... 294
10.7 Summary ............................................... 295
11 Astrophysical influences on planetary climate systems ...... 299
Jürg Beer
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 299
11.2 External influences ................................... 300
11.3 Variability of influences ............................. 311
11.4 Reconstruction of long-term solar variability ......... 319
12 Assessing the Sun-climate relationship in paleoclimate
records .................................................... 333
Thomas J. Crowley
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 333
12.2 The instrumental record of climate change ............. 334
12.3 Results from the climate records for the past 2000
years ................................................. 337
12.4 Sun and climate beyond the most recent two
millennia ............................................. 345
12.5 Discussion and conclusions ............................ 347
13 Terrestrial ionospheres .................................... 351
Stanley C. Solomon
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 351
13.2 Ionization ............................................ 353
13.3 Recombination ......................................... 355
13.4 Venus and Mars ........................................ 358
13.5 Ionospheres, exoplanets, and signatures of life ....... 361
14 Long-term evolution of the geospace climate ................ 363
Jan J. Sojka
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 363
14.2 Our experience of geospace climate change ............. 365
14.3 Geospace climate response to solar photon
irradiation ........................................... 366
14.4 Geospace climate at earlier terrestrial ages .......... 373
14.5 Geospace climate response to Earth's magnetic field
changes ............................................... 379
14.6 Geospace climate response to anthropogenic change ..... 386
15 Waves and transport processes in atmospheres and oceans .... 389
Richard L. Walterscheid
15.1 Atmospheric waves ..................................... 389
15.2 Examples of observed atmospheric waves ................ 392
15.3 Dynamics of planetary waves ........................... 395
15.4 Dynamics of gravity waves ............................. 399
15.5 Quantitative theory of oscillations on a rotating
sphere ................................................ 400
15.6 Oscillations of an atmosphere ......................... 403
15.7 Forced waves .......................................... 409
15.8 Atmospheric waves on other planets .................... 412
15.9 Transports and wave forcing ........................... 413
15.10 Climatic effects of waves ............................ 414
15.11 Waves in the ionosphere-thermosphere (IT) system ..... 417
15.12 Consequences of changing the planetary rotation ...... 422
16 Solar variability, climate, and atmospheric
photochemistry ............................................. 425
Guy P. Brasseur, Daniel Marsch, and Hauke Schmidt
16.1 Introduction .......................................... 425
16.2 The climate system .................................... 426
16.3 Atmospheric photochemistry ............................ 429
16.4 Ozone chemistry in the stratosphere ................... 431
16.5 Response of ozone to solar variability ................ 434
16.6 Response of atmospheric dynamics to solar
variability ........................................... 441
16.7 Conclusions ........................................... 446
Appendix I Authors and editors ................................ 449
List of illustrations ......................................... 451
List of tables ................................................ 460
References .................................................... 461
Index ......................................................... 488
The plates are to be found between pages 242 and 243.
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