FOREWORD ........................................................ X
DEDICATION ..................................................... XI
PREFACE ....................................................... XII
LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................. XVJI
1 Introduction .................................................. 1
1 Systems, Science, and Study .................................. 3
1.1 Introduction: Why Does GIS Matter? ...................... 4
1.1.1 Spatial is Special .............................. 11
1.2 Data, Information, Knowledge, Evidence, Wisdom ......... 11
1.3 Systems and Science .................................... 13
1.3.1 The Science of Problem Solving .................. 13
1.3.2 The Technology of Problem Solving ............... 16
1.4 A Brief History of GIS ................................. 17
1.5 Views of GIS ........................................... 18
1.5.1 Anatomy of a GIS ................................ 22
1.6 The Business of GIS .................................... 26
1.6.1 The Software Industry ........................... 26
1.6.2 The Data Industry ............................... 26
1.6.3 The GIServices Industry ......................... 27
1.6.4 The GeoWeb Services Industry .................... 27
1.6.5 The Publishing Industry ......................... 28
1.6.6 GIS Education ................................... 29
1.7 GISystems, GIScience, and GIStudies .................... 30
1.8 GIS and the Study of Geography ......................... 34
Questions for Further Study ................................. 36
Further Reading ............................................. 37
2 A Gallery of Applications ................................... 39
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 40
2.1.1 One Day of Life with GIS ........................ 40
2.1.2 Why GIS? ........................................ 43
2.2 Science, Geography, and Applications ................... 43
2.2.1 Scientific Questions and GIS Operations ......... 43
2.2.2 GIScience Applications .......................... 44
2.3 Representative Application
Areas and Their Foundations ............................ 45
2.3.1 Introduction and Overview ....................... 45
2.3.2 Government and Public Service ................... 46
2.3.3 Business and Service Planning ................... 51
2.3.4 Logistics and Transportation .................... 60
2.3.5 Environment ..................................... 66
2.4 Concluding Comments .................................... 71
Questions for Further Study ............................ 71
Further Reading ........................................ 71
2 Principles ................................................... 73
3 Representing Geography ...................................... 75
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 76
3.2 Digital Representation ................................. 77
3.3 Representation of What and for Whom? ................... 79
3.4 The Fundamental Problem ................................ 81
3.5 Discrete Objects and Continuous Fields ................. 83
3.5.1 Discrete Objects ................................ 83
3.5.2 Continuous Fields ............................... 85
3.6 Rasters and Vectors .................................... 87
3.6.1 Raster Data ..................................... 87
3.6.2 Vector Data ..................................... 88
3.6.3 Representing Continuous Fields .................. 89
3.7 The Paper Map .......................................... 90
3.8 Generalization ......................................... 92
3.8.1 Generalization about Places ..................... 92
3.8.2 Generalization about Properties ................. 95
3.8.3 Representation using VGI ........................ 95
3.9 Conclusion ............................................. 96
Questions for Further Study ............................ 97
Further Reading ........................................ 97
4 The Nature of Geographic Data ............................... 99
4.1 Introduction .......................................... 100
4.2 The Fundamental Problem Revisited ..................... 100
4.3 Spatial Autocorrelation and Scale ..................... 102
4.4 Spatial Sampling ...................................... 105
4.1 Distance Decay ........................................ 108
4.6 Measuring Distance Effects as Spatial
Autocorrelation ....................................... 113
4.7 Taming Geographic Monsters ............................ 118
4.8 Induction and Deduction and How It All Comes
Together .............................................. 119
Questions for Further Study ................................ 120
Further Reading ............................................ 121
5 Georeferencing ............................................. 123
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 124
5.2 Place-names ........................................... 125
5.3 Postal Addresses and Postal Codes ..................... 127
5.4 IP Addresses .......................................... 129
5.5 Linear Referencing Systems ............................ 130
5.6 Cadasters and the U.S. Public Land Survey System ...... 131
5.7 Measuring the Earth: Latitude and Longitude ........... 132
5.8 Projections and Coordinates ........................... 135
5.8.1 The Plate Carree or Cylindrical Equidistant
Projection ..................................... 137
5.8.2 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection ... 138
5.8.3 State Plane Coordinates and Other Local
Systems ........................................ 139
5.9 Measuring Latitude, Longitude, and Elevation: GPS ..... 141
5.10 Converting Georeferences .............................. 141
5.11 Geotagging and Mashups ................................ 142
5.12 Georegistration ....................................... 143
5.13 Summary ............................................... 145
Questions for Further Study ................................ 145
Further Reading ............................................ 145
6 Uncertainty ................................................ 147
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 148
6.2 Uncertainty in the Conception of Geographic
Phenomena ............................................. 149
6.2.1 Conceptions of Place: Units of Analysis ........ 149
6.2.2 Conceptions of Attributes: Vagueness and
Ambiguity ...................................... 151
6.2.3 Fuzzy Approaches to Attribute Classification ... 157
6.3 Further Uncertainty in the Representation of
Geographic Phenomena .................................. 159
6.3.1 Representation of Place/Location ............... 159
6.3.2 Statistical Models of Uncertainty in
Attribute Measures ............................. 161
6.3.3 Statistical Models of Uncertainty in Location
Measures ....................................... 165
6.4 Further Uncertainty in the Analysis of Geographic
Phenomena ............................................. 166
6.4.1 Internal and External Validation through
Spatial Analysis ............................... 166
6.4.2 Validation through Autocorrelation: The
Spatial Structure of Errors .................... 167
6.4.3 Validation through Investigating the Effects
of Aggregation and Scale ....................... 170
6.4.4 Validation with Reference to External
Sources: Data Integration and Shared Lineage ... 172
6.4.5 Internal and External Validation; Induction
and Deduction .................................. 174
6.5 Consolidation ......................................... 174
Questions for Further Study ................................ 177
Further Reading ............................................ 177
3 Techniques .................................................. 179
7 GIS Software ............................................... 181
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 182
7.2 The Evolution of GIS Software ......................... 182
7.3 Architecture of GIS Software .......................... 183
7.3.1 Project, Departmental, and Enterprise GIS ...... 183
7.3.2 The Three-Tier Architecture .................... 184
7.3.3 Software Data Models and Customization ......... 186
7.3.4 GIS on the Desktop and on the Web .............. 187
7.4 Building GIS Software Systems ......................... 189
7.5 GIS Software Vendors .................................. 189
7.5.1 Autodesk ....................................... 189
7.5.2 Bentley ........................................ 190
7.5.3 ESRI, Inc. ..................................... 191
7.5.4 Intergraph, Inc. ............................... 192
7.6 Types of GIS Software Systems ......................... 192
7.6.1 Desktop GIS Software ........................... 193
7.6.2 Web Mapping .................................... 196
7.6.3 Server GIS ..................................... 197
7.6.4 Virtual Globes ................................. 200
7.6.5 Developer GIS .................................. 202
7.6.6 Hand-Held GIS .................................. 203
7.6.7 Other Types of GIS Software .................... 204
7.7 Conclusion ............................................ 205
Questions for Further Study ................................ 205
Further Reading ............................................ 206
8 Geographic Data Modeling ................................... 207
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 208
8.1.1 Data Model Overview ............................ 208
8.1.2 Levels of Data Model Abstraction ............... 208
8.2 GIS Data Models ....................................... 209
8.2.1 CAD, Graphical, and Image GIS Data Models ...... 210
8.2.2 Raster Data Model .............................. 211
8.2.3 Vector Data Model .............................. 214
8.2.4 Object Data Model .............................. 221
8.3 Example of a Water-Facility Object Data Model ......... 224
8.4 Geographic Data Modeling in Practice .................. 226
Questions for Further Study ................................ 228
Further Reading ............................................ 228
9 GIS Data Collection ........................................ 229
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 230
9.1.1 Data Collection Workflow ....................... 231
9.2 Primary Geographic Data Capture ....................... 232
9.2.1 Raster Data Capture ............................ 232
9.2.2 Vector Data Capture ............................ 234
9.3 Secondary Geographic Data Capture ..................... 236
9.3.1 Raster Data Capture Using Scanners ............. 236
9.3.2 Vector Data Capture ............................ 238
9.4 Obtaining Data from External Sources (Data
Transfer) ............................................. 243
9.4.1 Geographic Data Formats ........................ 245
9.5 Capturing Attribute Data .............................. 247
9.6 Citizen-centric Web-Based Data Collection ............. 247
9.7 Managing a Data Collection Project .................... 247
Questions for Further Study ................................ 249
Further Reading ............................................ 249
10 Creating and Maintaining Geographic Databases .............. 251
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 252
10.2 Database Management Systems ........................... 252
10.2.1 Types of DBMS .................................. 253
10.2.2 Geographic DBMS Extensions ..................... 254
10.3 Storing Data in DBMS Tables ........................... 256
10.4 SQL ................................................... 259
10.5 Geographic Database Types and Functions ............... 260
10.6 Geographic Database Design ............................ 262
10.6.1 The Database Design Process .................... 262
10.7 Structuring Geographic Information .................... 264
10.7.1 Topology Creation .............................. 264
10.7.2 Indexing ....................................... 266
10.8 Editing and Data Maintenance .......................... 270
10.9 Multiuser Editing of Continuous Databases ............. 271
10.9.1 Transactions ................................... 271
10.9.2 Versioning ..................................... 271
10.10 Conclusion ........................................... 272
Questions for Further Study ................................ 274
Further Reading ............................................ 274
11 The GeoWeb ................................................. 275
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 276
11.2 Distributing the Data ................................. 279
11.2.1 Object-Level Metadata .......................... 280
11.2.2 Geolibraries and Geoportals .................... 283
11.3 The Mobile User ....................................... 284
11.3.1 Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality .......... 285
11.3.2 Location-Based Services ........................ 288
11.3.3 Issues in Mobile GIS ........................... 290
11.4 Distributing the Software: GIServices ................. 290
11.4.1 Service-Oriented Architecture .................. 291
11.5 Prospects ............................................. 293
Questions for Further Study ................................ 293
Further Reading ............................................ 294
4 Analysis .................................................... 295
12 Cartography and Map Production ............................. 297
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 298
12.2 Maps and Cartography .................................. 302
12.2.1 Maps and Media ................................. 304
12.3 Principles of Map Design .............................. 306
12.3.1 Map Composition ................................ 307
12.3.2 Map Symbolization .............................. 308
12.4 Map Series ............................................ 315
12.5 Applications .......................................... 319
12.6 Conclusion ............................................ 320
Questions for Further Study ................................ 322
Further Reading ............................................ 322
13 Geovisualization ........................................... 323
13.1 Introduction: Uses, Users, Messages, and Media ........ 324
13.2 Geovisualization, Spatial Query, and User
Interaction ........................................... 327
13.2.1 Overview ....................................... 327
13.2.2 Spatial Query Online and the GeoWeb ............ 332
13.3 Geovisualization and Interactive Transformation ....... 334
13.3.1 Overview ....................................... 334
13.3.2 Cartograms ..................................... 335
13.3.3 Remodeling Spatial Distributions as
Dasymetric Maps ................................ 336
13.4 Participation, Interaction, and Immersion ............. 339
13.4.1 Public Participation in GIS (PPGIS) ............ 339
13.4.2 2.5-D and 3-D Representation ................... 340
13.4.3 Hand-held Computing and Augmented Reality ...... 344
13.4.4 Scientific Visualization (ViSC) and Virtual
Reality ........................................ 344
13.5 Consolidation ......................................... 347
Questions for Further Study ................................ 348
Further Reading ............................................ 349
14 Spatial Data Analysis ...................................... 351
14.1 Introduction: What Is Spatial Analysis? ............... 352
14.1.1 Examples ....................................... 353
14.2 Analysis Based on Location ............................ 355
14.2.1 Analysis of Attribute Tables ................... 356
14.2.2 Spatial Joins .................................. 360
14.2.3 The Point-in-Polygon Operation ................. 360
14.2.4 Polygon Overlay ................................ 361
14.2.5 Raster Analysis ................................ 363
14.3 Analysis Based on Distance ............................ 363
14.3.1 Measuring Distance and Length .................. 364
14.3.2 Buffering ...................................... 366
14.3.3 Cluster Detection .............................. 368
14.3.4 Dependence at a Distance ....................... 370
14.3.5 Density Estimation ............................. 371
14.3.6 Spatial Interpolation .......................... 373
14.4 Conclusion ............................................ 378
Questions for Further Study ................................ 378
Further Reading ............................................ 379
15 Spatial Analysis and Inference ............................. 381
15.1 The Purpose of Area-Based Analyses .................... 382
15.1.1 Measurement of Area ............................ 382
15.1.2 Measurement of Shape ........................... 382
15.2 Centrality ............................................ 384
15.2.1 Centers ........................................ 384
15.2.2 Dispersion ..................................... 386
15.3 Analysis of Surfaces .................................. 386
15.3.1 Slope and Aspect ............................... 387
15.3.2 Modeling Travel on a Surface ................... 388
15.3.3 Computing Watersheds and Channels .............. 389
15.3.4 Computing Visibility ........................... 391
15.4 Design ................................................ 393
15.4.1 Point Location ................................. 393
15.4.2 Routing Problems ............................... 395
15.5 Hypothesis Testing .................................... 397
15.5.1 Hypothesis Tests on Geographic Data ............ 398
15.6 Conclusion ....................................... 401
Questions for Further Study ........................... 401
Further Reading ....................................... 401
16 Spatial Modeling with GIS .................................. 403
16.1 Introduction .......................................... 404
16.1.1 Why Model? ..................................... 406
16.1.2 To Analyze or to Model? ........................ 406
16.2 Types of Models ....................................... 407
16.2.1 Static Models and Indicators ................... 407
16.2.2 Individual and Aggregate Models ................ 410
16.2.3 Cellular Models ................................ 414
16.2.4 Cartographic Modeling and Map Algebra .......... 414
16.3 Technology for Modeling ............................... 417
16.3.1 Operationalizing Models in GIS ................. 417
16.3.2 Model Coupling ................................. 417
16.3.3 Cataloging and Sharing Models .................. 418
16.4 Multicriteria Methods ................................. 418
16.5 Accuracy and Validity: Testing the Model .............. 420
Conclusion ................................................. 422
Questions for Further Study ................................ 422
Further Reading ............................................ 423
5 Management and Policy ....................................... 425
17 Managing GIS ............................................... 427
17.1 Introduction .......................................... 428
17.2 The Case for GIS: ROI ................................. 429
17.3 The Process of Developing a Sustainable GIS ........... 434
17.3.1 Choosing a GIS ................................. 436
17.3.2 Implementing a GIS ............................. 441
17.3.3 Managing a Sustainable, Operational GIS ........ 443
17.4 Sustaining a GIS—The People and Their Competences ..... 446
17.4.1 GIS Staff and the Teams Involved ............... 446
17.4.2 Project Managers ............................... 447
17.4.3 Coping with Uncertainty ........................ 447
17.5 Conclusions ........................................... 448
Questions for Further Study ................................ 448
Further Reading ............................................ 449
18 Operating Safely with GIS .................................. 451
18.1 Introduction .......................................... 452
18.2 GIS and Decision Making ............................... 452
18.3 Organizational Context ................................ 454
18.4 Geographic Information ................................ 454
18.4.1 The Characteristics of Information ............. 454
18.4.2 Additional Characteristics of Gl ............... 458
18.5 GIS, Gl, and Key Management Issues .................... 459
18.5.1 The Law ........................................ 459
18.5.2 Trading in Gl and the Role of Government ....... 465
18.5.3 GIS and Privacy ................................ 469
18.5.4 GIS Ethics and Decision Making ................. 472
18.5.5 Public Trust ................................... 474
18.6 Conclusions ........................................... 475
Questions for Further Study ................................ 476
Further Reading ............................................ 476
19 GIS Partnerships ........................................... 477
19.1 Introduction .......................................... 478
19.2 Commercial Partnerships ............................... 478
19.3 Spatial Data Infrastructures .......................... 479
19.3.1 How It All Began ............................... 480
19.3.2 SDI Partnerships at the Global Level ........... 482
19.3.3 SDI Partnerships at the Multicountry Level ..... 484
19.3.4 SDI Partnerships at the National Level ......... 490
19.3.5 SDI Partnerships at the Subnational or Local
Level .......................................... 492
19.4 Partnerships of Individual Volunteers ................. 494
19.5 Have SDIs Been a Success? ............................. 495
19.6 Nationalism, Globalization, Politics, and GIS ......... 498
Questions for Further Study ................................ 499
Further Reading ............................................ 499
20 Epilogue: GIS&S in the Service of Humanity ................. 501
20.1 Introduction .......................................... 502
20.2 The Differentiated World .............................. 502
20.3 Grand Challenges ...................................... 503
20.3.1 The Global View of Governments ................. 503
20.3.2 Challenges Amenable to Use of GIS&S ............ 504
20.4 Seeking the Root Causes ............................... 518
20.5 Meeting the Challenges ................................ 519
20.5.1 Why GIS&S Should Enable Us to Make
a Difference ................................... 520
20.6 Conclusions ........................................... 523
Questions for Further Study ................................ 525
Further Reading ............................................ 525
INDEX ......................................................... 526
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