Preface ........................................................ xv
The Editors .................................................. xvii
Contributing Authors ........................................ xviii
The Department of Soil, Water and Environmental
Science (SWES) ................................................. xx
PART 1 PROCESSES AFFECTING FATE AND TRANSPORT OF
CONTAMINANTS
CHAPTER 1 The Extent of Global Pollution ....................... 3
I.L. Pepper, C.P. Gerba, and M.L. Brusseau
1.1 Science and Pollution ..................................... 4
1.2 Global Perspective of the Environment ..................... 5
1.3 Pollution and Population Pressures ........................ 6
1.4 Overview of Environmental Characterization ................ 8
1.4.1 Soil and the Subsurface ........................... 8
1.4.2 Water ............................................. 8
1.4.3 Air ............................................... 9
1.5 Advances in Analytical Detection Technology .............. 10
1.5.1 Advances in Chemical Analysis .................... 10
1.5.2 Advances in Biological Analysis .................. 10
1.6 The Risk Based Approach to Pollution Science ............. 10
1.7 Waste Management, Site Remediation, and Ecosystem
Restoration .............................................. 12
References and Additional Reading ........................ 12
CHAPTER 2 Physical-Chemical Characteristics of Soils and
the Subsurface ...................................... 13
I.L. Pepper and M.L. Brusseau
2.1 Soil and Subsurface Environments ......................... 14
2.2 Solid Phase .............................................. 14
2.2.1 Soil Profiles .................................... 14
2.2.2 Primary Particles and Soil Texture ............... 16
2.2.3 Soil Structure ................................... 16
2.2.4 Cation-Exchange Capacity ......................... 18
2.2.5 Soil pH .......................................... 18
2.2.6 Organic Matter ................................... 19
2.2.7 Vadose Zone—Solid Phase .......................... 20
2.3 Gaseous Phase ............................................ 20
2.3.1 Constituents of Soil Atmosphere .................. 20
2.3.2 Availability of Oxygen and Soil Respiration ...... 20
2.3.3 Gaseous Phase Within the Vadose Zone ............. 21
2.4 Liquid Phase ............................................. 21
2.5 Basic Physical Properties ................................ 21
2.5.1 Bulk Density ..................................... 21
2.5.2 Porosity ......................................... 21
2.5.3 Soil Water Content ............................... 22
2.5.4 Soil Temperature ................................. 22
Questions and Problems ................................... 23
References and Additional Reading ........................ 23
CHAPTER 3 Physical-Chemical Characteristics of Waters ......... 24
D.B. Walker, M.L. Brusseau, and K. Fitzsimmons
3.1 The Watery Planet ........................................ 25
3.1.1 Distribution ..................................... 25
3.1.2 The Hydro logic Cycle ............................ 25
3.2 Unique Properties of Water ............................... 26
3.2.1 Structure and Polarity ........................... 26
3.2.2 Thermal Properties ............................... 26
3.3 Mechanical Properties .................................... 27
3.3.1 Interception, Evaporation, Infiltration,
Runoff ........................................... 27
3.4 The Universal Solvent .................................... 28
3.4.1 Concentration Terminology ........................ 29
3.4.2 Oxygen and Other Gases in Water .................. 29
3.4.3 Carbon Dioxide in Water .......................... 30
3.5 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions ............................ 32
3.6 Light in Aquatic Environments ............................ 33
3.6.1 Light Energy ..................................... 33
3.6.2 Light at and Below the Water Surface ............. 33
3.7 Oceans ................................................... 34
3.7.1 Salts ............................................ 34
3.7.2 Transport and Accumulation of Pollutants ......... 34
3.7.3 Wave Morphology and Currents ..................... 34
3.8 Lakes and Reservoirs—The Lentic System ................... 35
3.8.1 Lentic Typology .................................. 35
3.8.2 Trophic State .................................... 35
3.8.3 Density and Layering ............................. 36
3.9 Streams and Rivers—The Lotic System ...................... 37
3.9.1 Stream Morphometry ............................... 37
3.9.2 Stream Hydraulics ................................ 38
3.10 Groundwater—Water in the Subsurface ...................... 38
3.10.1 Water in the Subsurface .......................... 39
3.10.2 Principles of Subsurface Water Flow .............. 40
3.10.3 Darcy's Law ...................................... 41
3.10.4 Hydraulic Conductivity ........................... 42
3.11 A Watershed Approach ..................................... 44
Questions and Problems ................................... 44
References and Additional Reading ........................ 45
CHAPTER 4 Physical-Chemical Characteristics of the
Atmosphere .......................................... 46
A.D. Matthias, S.A. Musil, and H.L. Bohn
4.1 Chemical Composition ..................................... 47
4.2 Physical Properties and Structure ........................ 49
4.2.1 Density, Pressure, and Wind ...................... 50
4.2.2 Temperature ...................................... 51
4.2.3 Water Vapor and Precipitation .................... 55
4.2.4 Radiative Transfer ............................... 55
4.2.5 Lower Atmosphere ................................. 56
4.2.6 Upper Atmosphere ................................. 57
Questions and Problems ................................... 57
References and Additional Reading ........................ 57
CHAPTER 5 Biotic Characteristics of the Environment ........... 58
I.L. Pepper and K.L. Josephson
5.1 Major Groups of Organisms ................................ 59
5.2 Microorganisms in Surface Soils .......................... 63
5.2.1 Bacteria ......................................... 63
5.2.1.1 Mode of nutrition ...................... 64
5.2.1.2 Type of electron acceptor .............. 65
5.2.1.3 Ecological classification .............. 65
5.2.1.4 Dominant culturable soil bacteria ...... 65
5.2.1.5 Distribution and function .............. 65
5.2.2 Fungi ............................................ 66
5.2.3 Algae ............................................ 68
5.2.4 Protozoa ......................................... 68
5.3 Microorganisms in the Subsurface ......................... 69
5.4 Biological Generation of Energy .......................... 69
5.5 Soil as an Environment for Microbes ...................... 70
5.5.1 Biotic Stress .................................... 70
5.5.2 Abiotic Stress ................................... 71
5.6 Activity and Physiological State of Microbes in Soil ..... 72
5.7 Enumeration of Soil Bacteria via Dilution and Plating .... 73
5.8 Microorganisms in Air .................................... 73
5.8.1 Incidence of Bioaerosols ......................... 73
5.8.2 Fate and Transport of Bioaerosols ................ 74
5.9 Microorganisms in Surface Waters ......................... 76
5.9.1 General Characteristics of Microbial
Communities in Aquatic Environments .............. 76
Questions and Problems ................................... 77
References and Additional Reading ........................ 77
CHAPTER 6 Physical Processes Affecting Contaminant
Transport and Fate .................................. 78
M.L. Brusseau
6.1 Contaminant Transport and Fate in the Environment ........ 79
6.2 Contaminant Properties ................................... 80
6.3 Advection ................................................ 81
6.4 Dispersion ............................................... 82
6.5 Mass Transfer ............................................ 83
6.6 Transformation Reactions ................................. 83
6.7 Characterizing Spatial and Temporal Distributions of
Contaminants ............................................. 83
6.8 Estimating Phase Distributions of Contaminants ........... 85
6.9 Quantifying Contaminant Transport and Fate ............... 86
Questions and Problems ................................... 87
References and Additional Reading ........................ 88
CHAPTER 7 Chemical Processes Affecting Contaminant Transport
and Fate ............................................ 89
M.L. Brusseau and J. Chorover
7.1 Introduction ............................................. 90
7.2 Basic Properties of Inorganic Contaminants ............... 90
7.2.1 Speciation of Inorganic Pollutants ............... 90
7.2.2 Aqueous Phase Activities and Concentrations ...... 90
7.2.3 Ion Hydration, Ion Hydrolysis, and Acid-Base
Reactions ........................................ 91
7.2.4 Aqueous-Phase Complexation Reactions ............. 93
7.2.5 Precipitation-Dissolution Reactions .............. 93
7.3 Basic Properties of Organic Contaminants ................. 94
7.3.1 Phases—Solids, Liquids, Gases .................... 94
7.3.2 Dissolution and Aqueous Solubilities of Organic
Contaminants ..................................... 95
7.3.3 Evaporation of Organic Contaminants .............. 96
1.3.1 Volatilization of Organic Contaminants ........... 96
7.3.1 Multiple-Component Organic Phases ................ 96
7.4 Sorption Processes ....................................... 97
7.4.1 Inorganics ....................................... 97
7.4.2 Organics ......................................... 98
7.4.3 Magnitude and Rate of Sorption .................. 100
7.5 Abiotic Transformation Reactions ........................ 101
7.5.1 Hydrolysis ...................................... 101
7.5.2 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions ................... 101
7.5.3 Photochemical Reactions ......................... 102
7.5.4 Radioactive Decay ............................... 103
7.5.5 Quantifying Transformation Rates ................ 103
Questions and Problems .................................. 704
References and Additional Reading ....................... 704
CHAPTER 8 Biological Processes Affecting Contaminant
Transport and Fate ................................. 105
R.M. Maier
8.1 Biological Effects on Pollutants ........................ 106
8.2 The Overall Process of Biodegradation ................... 106
8.3 Microbial Activity and Biodegradation ................... 108
8.3.1 Environmental Effects on Biodegradation ......... 108
8.3.1.1 Oxygen and other terminal electron
acceptors ............................. 109
8.3.1.2 Microbial populations and organic
matter content ........................ 111
8.3.1.3 Nitrogen .............................. 111
8.3.2 Pollutant Structure ............................. 111
8.4 Biodegradation Pathways ................................. 112
8.4.1 Biodegradation Under Aerobic Conditions ......... 112
8.4.1.1 Aliphatic hydrocarbons ................ 112
8.4.1.2 Aromatic hydrocarbons ................. 113
8.4.1.3 Alicyclic hydrocarbons ................ 114
8.4.2 Biodegradation Under Anaerobic Conditions ....... 115
8.4.2.1 Aliphatic hydrocarbons ................ 115
8.4.2.2 Aromatic hydrocarbons ................. 116
8.5 Transformation of Metal Pollutants ...................... 117
8.5.1 Effects of Metals on Microbial Metabolism ....... 118
8.5.2 Microbial Transformations of Metals ............. 118
Questions and Problems .................................. 120
References and Additional Reading ....................... 720
PART 2 MONITORING, ASSESSMENT, AND REGULATION OF
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
CHAPTER 9 Physical Contaminants .............................. 123
J. Walworth and I.L. Pepper
9.1 Particle Origins ........................................ 124
9.2 Particle Size ........................................... 124
9.2.1 Nanoparticles ..................................... 125
9.3 Particles in Air or Aerosols ............................ 125
9.3.1 Aerosols of Concern ............................. 126
9.3.1.1 Asbestos .............................. 126
9.3.1.2 Silica ................................ 126
9.3.1.3 Human-made aerosols ................... 127
9.3.1.4 Bioaerosols ........................... 128
9.4 Particulates in Water ................................... 128
9.4.1 Soil Particles .................................. 129
9.4.1.1 Soil particle flocculation ............ 129
9.5 Summary ................................................. 130
Questions and Problems .................................. 131
References and Additional Reading ....................... 131
CHAPTER 10 Chemical Contaminants .............................. 132
M.L. Brusseau, C.M. McColl, G. Famisan, and
J.F. Artiola
10.1 Introduction ............................................ 133
10.2 Types of Contaminants ................................... 133
10.3 Sources: Agricultural Activities ........................ 133
10.4 Sources: Industrial and Manufacturing Activities ........ 138
10.5 Sources: Municipal Waste ................................ 138
10.6 Sources: Service-Related Activities ..................... 140
10.7 Sources: Resource Extraction/Production ................. 141
10.8 Sources: Radioactive Contaminants ....................... 141
10.9 Natural Sources of Contaminants ......................... 143
Questions and Problems .................................. 743
References and Additional Reading ....................... 143
CHAPTER 11 Microbial Contaminants ............................ 144
C.P. Gerba and I.L. Pepper
11.1 Water-Related Microbial Disease ......................... 145
11.2 Classes of Diseases and Types of Pathogens .............. 146
11.3 Types of Pathogenic Organisms ........................... 147
11.3.1 Viruses ......................................... 147
11.3.2 Bacteria ........................................ 149
11.3.2.1 Enteric bacteria ...................... 149
11.3.2.2 Legionella ............................ 151
11.3.2.3 Opportunistic bacterial pathogens ..... 153
11.3.2.4 Indicator bacteria .................... 153
11.3.2.5 The Most Probable Number (MPN)
test .................................. 153
11.3.2.6 The Membrane Filter (MF) test ......... 154
11.3.2.7 The Presence-Absence (P-A) test ....... 155
11.3.2.8 Fecal streptococci .................... 157
11.3.2.9 Heterotrophic plate count ............. 158
11.3.2.10 Bacteriophage ......................... 158
11.3.3 Protozoa ........................................ 159
11.3.3.1 Giardia ............................... 159
11.3.3.2 Cryptosporidium ....................... 160
11.3.4 Helminths ....................................... 161
11.3.5 Blue-Green Algae ................................ 163
11.4 Sources of Pathogens in the Environment ................. 163
11.4.1 Sludge .......................................... 164
11.4.2 Solid Waste ..................................... 164
11.5 Fate and Transport of Pathogens in the Environment ...... 165
11.6 Standards and Criteria for Indicators ................... 166
Questions and Problems .................................. 168
References and Additional Reading ....................... 168
CHAPTER 12 The Role of Environmental Monitoring in
Pollution Science ................................. 170
J.F. Artiola and M.L. Brusseau
12.1 Introduction ............................................ 171
12.2 Sampling and Monitoring Basics .......................... 171
12.3 Statistics and Geostatistics ............................ 172
12.4 Sampling and Monitoring Tools ........................... 173
12.4.1 Maps ............................................ 173
12.4.2 Remote Sensoring ................................ 175
12.5 Soil and Vadose Zone Sampling and Monitoring ............ 176
12.6 Groundwater Sampling and Monitoring ..................... 177
12.7 Surface Water Sampling and Monitoring ................... 179
12.8 Atmosphere Sampling and Monitoring ...................... 179
12.9 Conclusions ............................................. 181
Questions and Problems .................................. 182
References and Additional Reading ....................... 182
CHAPTER 13 Environmental Toxicology .......................... 183
C.P. Gerba
13.1 History of Modern Toxicity in the United States ......... 184
13.2 Toxic Versus Nontoxic ................................... 184
13.3 Exposure and Dose ....................................... 184
13.4 Evaluation of Toxicity .................................. 186
13.4.1 Manifestations of Toxicity ...................... 757
13.4.2 Toxicity Testing ................................ 188
13.4.3 Toxicity Tests for Carcinogenicity .............. 189
13.4.4 Epidemiological Studies ......................... 190
13.4.5 Short-Term Tests for Toxicity ................... 192
13.4.6 Threshold Effects ............................... 192
13.5 Responses to Toxic Substances ........................... 193
13.5.1 Absorption ...................................... 193
13.5.2 Distribution .................................... 194
13.5.3 Excretion ....................................... 195
13.5.4 Metabolism ...................................... 195
13.5.5 Biotransformation of Toxicants .................. 195
13.5.6 Phase I Transformations ......................... 195
13.5.7 Phase II Transformations ........................ 796
13.6 Carcinogens ............................................. 197
13.7 Mutagens ................................................ 199
13.8 Teratogens .............................................. 200
13.9 Chemical Toxicity: General Considerations ............... 201
13.10 Chemical Toxicity: Selected Substances .................. 202
13.10.1 Heavy Metals .................................... 202
13.10.2 Inorganic Radionuclides ......................... 206
13.10.3 Insecticides .................................... 207
13.10.4 Herbicides ...................................... 208
13.10.5 Halogenated Hydrocarbons ........................ 209
Questions and Problems .................................. 211
References and Additional Reading ....................... 211
CHAPTER 14 Risk Assessment ................................... 212
С.P. Gerba
14.1 The Concept of Risk Assessment .......................... 213
14.2 The Process of Risk Assessment .......................... 215
14.2.1 Hazard Identification ........................... 215
14.2.2 Exposure Assessment ............................. 215
14.2.3 Dose-Response Assessment ........................ 217
14.2.4 Risk Characterization ........................... 220
14.2.4.1 Cancer risks .......................... 220
14.2.4.2 Noncancer risks ....................... 227
14.2.4.3 Uncertainty analysis .................. 222
14.2.4.4 Risk projections and management ....... 223
14.2.4.5 Hazardous waste risk assessment ....... 223
14.3 Ecological Risk Assessment .............................. 223
14.4 Microbial Risk Assessment ............................... 225
Questions and Problems .................................. 231
References and Additional Reading ....................... 231
CHAPTER 15 Environmental Laws and Regulations ................ 233
C.P. Gerba and C. Straub
15.1 Regulatory Overview ..................................... 234
15.2 The Safe Drinking Water Act ............................. 234
15.3 The Clean Water Act ..................................... 234
15.4 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation
and Liability Act ....................................... 237
15.5 Federal Insecticide and Rodenticide Act ................. 238
15.6 Clean Air Act ........................................... 238
15.7 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) ........... 239
15.8 The Pollution Prevention Act ............................ 239
15.9 Other Regulatory Agencies and Accords ................... 239
Questions and Problems .................................. 240
References and Additional Reading ....................... 240
PART 3 LAND AND WATER POLLUTION MITIGATION
CHAPTER 16 Soil and Land Pollution ........................... 243
J.F. Artiola, J.L. Walworth, S.A. Musil, and
M.A. Crimmins
16.1 Introduction ............................................ 244
16.2 Surface Mining .......................................... 244
16.2.1 Mine Tailings ................................... 244
16.2.2 Air Emissions ................................... 245
16.3 Deforestation ........................................... 245
16.3.1 Local Land Pollution Impacts of Deforestation ... 246
16.3.2 Regional Air Quality Impacts of Deforestation ... 246
16.4 Soil Acidity—Salinity ................................... 246
16.4.1 Acid Soils ...................................... 246
16.4.2 Salinity ........................................ 247
16.5 Soil Erosion ............................................ 247
16.5.1 Soil Water Erosion and Control .................. 247
16.5.2 Soil Wind Erosion and Control ................... 249
16.6 Agricultural Activities ................................. 249
16.6.1 Fertilizers ..................................... 249
16.6.2 Pesticides ...................................... 250
16.6.2.1 Types of pesticides ................... 250
16.6.2.2 Extent of pesticide use ............... 257
16.6.2.3 Fate of pesticides .................... 252
16.7 Animal Wastes ........................................... 253
16.7.1 Nonpoint Versus Point Source Pollution .......... 253
16.7.2 Specific Pollutants ............................. 254
16.8 Industrial Wastes With High Salts and Organics .......... 254
16.8.1 Oil Drilling .................................... 254
16.8.2 Coal-Burning Electric Power Plants .............. 254
16.8.3 Industrial Wastes High in Organic Chemicals ..... 255
16.9 Invasive Species ........................................ 255
16.9.1 Kudzu ........................................... 256
16.9.2 Salt Cedar ...................................... 256
Questions and Problems .................................. 257
References and Additional Reading ....................... 258
CHAPTER 17 Subsurface Pollution .............................. 259
M.L. Brusseau and G.R. Tick
17.1 Groundwater as a Resource ............................... 260
17.2 Groundwater Pollution ................................... 261
17.3 Groundwater Pollution Risk Assessment ................... 265
17.4 Point-Source Contamination .............................. 267
17.4.1 Hazardous Organic Chemicals ..................... 268
17.4.2 Landfills ....................................... 270
17.5 Diffuse-Source Contamination ............................ 272
17.5.1 Agrochemical Pollution of the Subsurface ........ 272
17.5.2 Salt-Water Intrusion ............................ 274
17.6 Other Groundwater Contamination Problems ................ 275
17.6.1 Pathogen Contamination of Groundwater ........... 275
17.6.2 Gasoline Additive: Methyl Tertiary-Butyl
Ether (MTBE) .................................... 276
17.6.3 Solvent Additives: 1,4-dioxane .................. 276
17.6.4 Perchlorate in Groundwater ...................... 276
17.6.5 Arsenic in Groundwater .......................... 277
17.6.6 Acid-Mine Drainage .............................. 277
17.7 Sustainability of Groundwater Resources ................. 277
Questions and Problems .................................. 278
References and Additional Reading ....................... 278
CHAPTER 18 Surface Water Pollution ........................... 279
D. Walker, D. Baumgartner, K. Fitzsimmons,
and C.P. Gerba
18.1 Surface Freshwater Resources ............................ 280
18.2 Marine Water Resources .................................. 280
18.2.1 The Coastal Zone ................................ 280
18.2.2 Open Ocean Waters ............................... 280
18.3 Sources of Surface Water Pollution ...................... 281
18.4 Sediments as Surface Water Contaminants ................. 282
18.4.1 Suspended Solids and Turbidity .................. 283
18.5 Metals as Surface Water Contaminants .................... 284
18.5.1 Mercury ......................................... 284
18.5.2 Arsenic ......................................... 286
18.5.3 Chromium ........................................ 286
18.5.4 Selenium ........................................ 286
18.6 Nutrients and Eutrophication of Surface Waters .......... 286
18.6.1 Harmful Algal Blooms ............................ 290
18.6.1.1 Harmful Algal Blooms in Marine
Systems ............................... 290
18.6.1.2 Harmful Algal Blooms in Freshwater
Systems ............................... 293
18.7 Organic Compounds in Water .............................. 294
18.7.1 Persistent, Bioaccumulative Organic Compounds .... 294
18.8 Enteric Pathogens as Surface Water Contaminants ......... 296
18.9 Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) ....................... 300
18.10 Quantification of Surface Water Pollution ............... 300
18.10.1 Die-Off of Indicator Organisms .................. 300
18.10.2 Organic Matter and Dissolved Oxygen ............. 303
18.10.3 Measurement of Potential Oxygen Demand Of
Organics in Sewage .............................. 304
18.10.3.1 COD ................................... 304
18.10.3.2 BOD ................................... 304
18.11 Determining BOD ......................................... 304
18.11.1 Impact of BOD on Dissolved Oxygen of Receiving
Waters .......................................... 305
18.12 Dilution of Effluents ................................... 306
18.12.1 Dilution in Streams and Rivers .................. 306
18.12.2 Dilution in Large Bodies of Water ............... 307
18.12.2.1 Initial dilution and transport ........ 307
18.12.2.2 Measurements and calculations ......... 307
18.13 Dye Tracing of Plumes ................................... 308
18.14 Spatial and Temporal Variation of Plume
Concentrations .......................................... 309
18.15 Compliance Monitoring ................................... 310
18.15.1 Mixing Zones .................................... 310
18.15.2 Regulatory Use .................................. 310
18.15.3 Verification Sampling ........................... 310
Questions and Problems .................................. 311
References and Additional Reading ....................... 311
CHAPTER 19 Soil and Groundwater Remediation .................. 312
M.L. Brusseau
19.1 Introduction ............................................ 313
19.2 Superfund Process ....................................... 313
19.3 Site Characterization ................................... 314
19.4 Remediation Technologies ................................ 318
19.4.1 Containment Technologies ........................ 318
19.4.1.1 Physical barriers ..................... 319
19.4.1.2 Hydraulic barriers .................... 319
19.4.1.3 Other containment methods ............. 320
19.4.2 Removal ......................................... 321
19.4.2.1 Excavation ............................ 321
19.4.2.2 Pump-and-treat ........................ 321
19.4.2.3 Enhanced flushing ..................... 322
19.4.2.4 Soil vapor extraction ................. 323
19.4.2.5 Air sparging .......................... 323
19.4.2.6 Thermal methods ....................... 324
19.4.2.7 Electrokinetic methods ................ 325
19.4.3 In situ Treatment ............................... 325
19.4.3.1 Bioremediation ........................ 325
19.4.3.2 In situ chemical treatment ............ 328
19.4.4 Other Technologies: Monitored Natural
Attenuation ..................................... 329
19.4.5 Other Technologies: Phytoremediation ............ 329
Questions and Problems .................................. 333
References and Additional Reading ....................... 333
CHAPTER 20 Ecosystem Restoration and Land Reclamation ........ 334
E.P. Glenn, W.J. Waugh, and I.L. Pepper
20.1 Introduction ............................................ 335
20.2 Site Characterization ................................... 335
20.2.1 Conceptual Plan and Site Assessment ............. 335
20.2.2 Plant Surveys ................................... 336
20.3 Site Restoration ........................................ 336
20.4 Site Monitoring ......................................... 336
20.5 Approaches to Ecosystem Restoration ..................... 337
20.5.1 Natural Restoration ............................. 337
20.5.2 Passive Ecological Restoration .................. 337
20.5.3 Active Ecological Restoration ................... 338
20.5.4 Ecological Restoration Using Organic
Amendment ....................................... 338
20.5.5 The Invasive Species Problem .................... 339
20.6 Land Reclamation ........................................ 339
20.6.1 Acidic Soils .................................... 347
20.6.2 Saline and Sodic Soils .......................... 347
20.6.3 Reforestation ................................... 348
Questions and Problems .................................. 348
References and Additional Reading ....................... 348
PART 4 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
CHAPTER 21 Sensory Pollutants, Electromagnetic Fields
and Radiofrequency Radiation ...................... 351
J.F. Artiola and C.M. McColl
21.1 Introduction ............................................ 352
21.2 Heat .................................................... 352
21.2.1 Sources of Heat Islands ......................... 352
21.2.2 Effects of Heat Islands ......................... 352
21.2.3 Controlling Heat Islands ........................ 353
21.2.4 Summary ......................................... 353
21.3 Light ................................................... 354
21.3.1 Sources of Light Pollution ...................... 354
21.3.2 Effects of Light ................................ 354
21.3.3 Controlling Light Pollution ..................... 355
21.3.4 Summary ......................................... 356
21.4 Noise Pollution ......................................... 356
21.4.1 The Physics of Sound ............................ 356
21.4.2 How We Hear Noise ............................... 356
21.4.3 Sources of Noise ................................ 358
21.4.4 Effects of Noise ................................ 358
21.4.5 Summary ......................................... 358
21.5 Odor as a Sensory Pollutant ............................. 359
21.5.1 Odor Response ................................... 359
21.5.2 Odor Perceptions ................................ 359
21.5.3 Sources of Odor ................................. 359
21.5.4 Regulations ..................................... 560
21.5.5 Summary ......................................... 360
21.6 Electromagnetic Fields and Radiofrequency Radiation ..... 360
21.6.1 Effects and Levels of EMF ....................... 361
21.6.2 Effects and Levels of RF ........................ 362
21.6.3 Summary ......................................... 362
Questions and Problems .................................. 364
References and Additional Reading ....................... 364
CHAPTER 22 Indoor Air Quality ................................ 365
K.A. Reynolds
22.1 Fundamentals of Indoor Air Quality ...................... 366
22.2 Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants ........................ 366
22.2.1 Volatile Organic Compounds ...................... 367
22.2.1.1 Pesticides ............................ 367
22.2.1.2 Construction Materials and
Furnishings ........................... 367
22.2.2 Combustion Products ............................. 368
22.2.2.1 Carbon Monoxide and Nitrogen
Dioxide ............................... 368
22.2.2.2 Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) ..... 368
22.2.3 Lead and Radon .................................. 368
22.2.4 Biological Pollutants ........................... 369
22.2.4.1 Mold .................................. 369
22.2.4.2 Endotoxin ............................. 369
22.2.4.3 Viruses and Bacteria .................. 370
22.2.4.4 Animal Allergens ...................... 370
22.2.4.5 Arthropod Allergens ................... 370
22.2.4.6 Plant Allergens ....................... 371
22.3 Factors Influencing Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution .... 371
22.3.1 Source Prevalence ............................... 371
22.3.2 Building Maintenance and Operation .............. 372
22.3.3 Building Design ................................. 373
22.3.4 Sensitive Populations ........................... 373
22.4 Monitoring IAQ .......................................... 374
Questions and Problems .................................. 375
References and Additional Reading ....................... 376
CHAPTER 23 Atmospheric Pollution ............................. 377
A.D. Matthias, A.C. Comrie, and S.A. Musil
23.1 Air Pollution Concepts .................................. 378
23.2 Sources, Types, and Effects of Air Pollution ............ 379
23.2.1 Primary Pollutants .............................. 380
23.2.1.1 Carbon monoxide ....................... 381
23.2.1.2 Hydrocarbons .......................... 557
23.2.1.3 Particulate matter .................... 381
23.2 1.4 Sulfur dioxide ........................ 382
23.2.1.5 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) ................. 383
23.2.1.6 Lead .................................. 383
23.2.2 Secondary Pollutants ............................ 383
23.2.3 Toxic and Hazardous Air Pollutants .............. 385
23.2.4 Pollutants With Radiative Effects ............... 385
23.2.4.1 Greenhouse gases ...................... 385
23.2.4.2 Stratospheric pollution ............... 386
23.2.4.2.1 NOx/O3 destruction
cycle ..................... 387
23.2.4.2.2 H2O/O3 destruction
cycle ..................... 388
23.2.4.2.3 CFC/O3 destruction
cycle ..................... 388
23.3 Weather and Pollutants .................................. 388
23.3.1 Stability and Inversions ........................ 388
23.3.2 Wind and Turbulence in Relation to Air
Pollution ....................................... 388
23.3.3 Pollutant Transformation and Removal ............ 391
23.4 Pollution Trends in the United States ................... 392
Questions and Problems .................................. 393
References and Additional Reading ....................... 393
CHAPTER 24 Global Change ..................................... 395
E.P. Glenn and A.D. Matthias
24.1 Introduction ............................................ 396
24.2 Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect ................ 397
24.2.1 The Greenhouse Effect ........................... 397
24.2.2 Effects of Greenhouse Gas Emissions on the
Global Climate .................................. 401
24.3 Other Global Changes .................................... 403
24.3.1 Acid Rain ....................................... 403
24.3.2 Atmospheric Ozone ............................... 404
24.3.3 Deforestation ................................... 405
24.3.4 Desertification ................................. 406
24.3.5 Depletion of Ocean Fish Stocks .................. 407
24.3.6 Coastal Degradation ............................. 408
24.4 Solutions to the Problems of Global Environmental
Change .................................................. 409
Questions and Problems .................................. 411
References and Additional Reading ....................... 411
PART 5 WASTE AND WATER TREATMENT AND MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 25 Industrial and Municipal Solid Waste Treatment
and Disposal ...................................... 415
J.F. Artiola
25.1 Introduction ............................................ 416
25.2 Relevant Regulations for Industrial and Municipal
Solid Wastes ............................................ 417
25.3 Major Forms of Industrial Wastes ........................ 417
25.4 Treatment and Disposal of Industrial Wastes ............. 419
25.4.1 Gas and Particulate Emissions ................... 419
25.4.2 Chemical Precipitation .......................... 419
25.4.3 Flocculation, Coagulation, Dewatering-
Filtration-Decanting-Drying ..................... 420
25.4.4 Stabilization (Neutralization) and
Solidification .................................. 420
25.4.5 Oxidation ....................................... 420
25.4.6 Landfilling ..................................... 421
25.4.7 Landfarming of Refinery Sludges and Oilfield
Wastes .......................................... 421
25.4.8 Deep-Well Injection of Liquid Wastes ............ 421
25.4.9 Incineration .................................... 422
25.4.10 Stockpiling, Tailings, and Muds ................. 423
25.5 Reuse of Industrial Wastes .............................. 423
25.5.1 Metals Recovery ................................. 423
25.5.2 Energy Recovery ................................. 423
25.5.3 Industrial Waste Solvents ....................... 423
25.5.4 Industrial Waste Reuse .......................... 423
25.6 Treatment and Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste ......... 424
25.6.1 Municipal Solid Waste ........................... 424
25.6.2 Modern Sanitary Landfills ....................... 425
25.6.3 Reduction of MSW ................................ 426
25.7 Pollution Prevention .................................... 426
Questions and Problems .................................. 427
References and Additional Reading ....................... 428
CHAPTER 26 Municipal Wastewater Treatment .................... 429
C.P. Gerba and I.L. Pepper
26.1 The Nature of Wastewater (Sewage) ....................... 430
26.2 Modern Wastewater Treatment ............................. 432
26.2.1 Primary Treatment ............................... 432
26.2.2 Secondary Treatment ............................. 432
26.2.2.1 Trickling filters ..................... 432
26.2.2.2 Conventional activated sludge ......... 435
26.2.2.3 Nitrogen removal by the activated
sludge process ........................ 436
26.2.2.4 Phosphorus removal by activated
sludge process ........................ 436
26.2.3 Tertiary Treatment .............................. 437
26.2 A Removal of Pathogens by Sewage Treatment Processes .... 437
26.2.5 Removal of Organics and Inorganics by Sewage
Treatment Processes .............................. 439
26.3 Oxidation Ponds ......................................... 439
26.4 Septic Tanks ............................................ 441
26.5 Land Application of Wastewater .......................... 443
26.6 Wetlands and Aquaculture Systems ........................ 445
26.7 Sludge Processing ....................................... 446
26.7.1 Stabilization Technologies ...................... 447
26.7.1.1 Aerobic digestion ..................... 447
26.7.1.2 Anaerobic digestion ................... 447
26.7.2 Sludge Processing to Produce Class A
Biosolids ....................................... 448
26.7.2.1 Composting ............................ 448
26.7.2.2 Lime and heat treatment ............... 449
Questions and Problems .................................. 449
References and Additional Reading ....................... 450
CHAPTER 27 Land Application of Biosolids and Animal Wastes ... 451
I.L. Pepper and C.P. Gerba
27.1 Biosolids and Animal Wastes: A Historical Perspective
and Current Outlook ..................................... 452
27.2 The Nature of Wastewater (Sewage) ....................... 452
27.3 Wastewater (Sewage) Treatment ........................... 453
27.3.1 Class A versus Class В Biosolids ................. 453
21.4 Methods of Land Application of Biosolids ................ 453
27.5 Benefits of Land Application of Biosolids ............... 456
27.5.1 Biosolids as a Source of Plant Nutrients ........ 456
27.5.2 Biosolid Impact on Soil Physical and Chemical
Properties ...................................... 456
27.5.3 Reduced Pollution ............................... 457
27.6 Hazards of Land Application of Biosolids ................ 457
27.6.1 Site Restrictions ............................... 457
27.6.2 Nitrates and Phosphates ......................... 457
27.6.3 Metals and Organics ............................. 457
27.6.4 Emerging Chemicals of Concern ................... 459
27.6.5 Pathogens ....................................... 460
27.6.5.1 Exposure via air ...................... 460
27.6.5.2 Exposure via groundwater .............. 460
27.6.5.3 Exposure via soil ..................... 460
27.7 Sources of Animal Wastes ................................ 464
27.8 Nonpoint Versus Point Source Pollution .................. 465
27.9 Benefits of Land Application of Animal Wastes ........... 465
27.10 Hazards of Land Application of Animal Wastes ............ 466
27.11 Public Perceptions of Land Application .................. 466
Questions and Problems .................................. 467
References and Additional Reading ....................... 467
CHAPTER 28 Drinking Water Treatment and Water Security ....... 468
C.P. Gerba, K.A. Reynolds, and I.L. Pepper
28.1 Water Treatment Processes ............................... 469
28.2 Disinfection ............................................ 471
28.3 Factors Affecting Disinfectants ......................... 472
28.4 Halogens ................................................ 473
28.4.1 Chlorine ........................................ 473
28.4.2 Chloramines ..................................... 474
28.4.3 Chlorine Dioxide ................................ 474
28.4.4 Ozone ........................................... 475
28.4.5 Ultraviolet Light ............................... 475
28.5 Disinfection By-Products ................................ 477
28.6 Residential Water Treatment ............................. 478
28.6.1 Residential Water Contamination ................. 479
28.6.2 Treatment Deficiencies .......................... 479
28.6.3 Point-of-Use Water Treatment Technology ......... 481
28.7 Water Security .......................................... 482
28.7.1 Potential Terrorist Attacks ..................... 482
28.7.2 Real-Time Monitoring ............................ 482
28.8 Monitoring Community Water Quality ...................... 485
Questions and Problems .................................. 485
References and Additional Reading ....................... 486
PART 6 EMERGING ISSUES IN POLLUTION SCIENCE
CHAPTER 29 Genetically Engineered Crops and Microbes ......... 489
C. Rensing, G. Grass, and I.L. Pepper
29.1 Introduction to Nucleic Acids ........................... 490
29.2 Recombinant DNA Technology .............................. 490
29.3 Transfer of Nucleic Acid Sequences from One Organism
to Another (Cloning)..................................... 490
29.4 Chemical Synthesis, Sequencing and Amplification of
DNA ..................................................... 492
29.4.1 DNA Synthesis ................................... 492
29.4.2 DNA Sequencing .................................. 493
29.4.3 PCR Amplification ............................... 493
29.5 Heterologous Gene Expression in Pro- and Eukaryotes ..... 493
29.6 Genetically Engineered Plants for Agriculture ........... 494
29.6.1 Insect Resistance ............................... 494
29.6.2 Virus Resistance ................................ 495
29.6.3 Herbicide Resistance ............................ 495
29.6.4 Fungus and Bacterial Resistance ................. 495
29.7 Genetically Engineered Plants for Remediation ........... 495
29.7.1 Metal Remediation via Plants .................... 495
29.7.2 Organic Remediation via Plants .................. 496
29.8 Microbial-Assisted Remediation .......................... 496
29.8.1 Genetic Engineering of Biodegradative
Pathways ........................................ 497
29.8.2 Radiation Resistant Degraders ................... 497
29.9 Potential Problems Due to Genetically Modified
Organisms ............................................... 497
Summary ....................................................... 498
Questions and Problems .................................. 498
References and Additional Reading ....................... 498
CHAPTER 30 Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Gene Transfer ... 499
C. Rensing and I.L. Pepper
30.1 Why Are Antibiotics An Issue? ........................... 500
30.2 Classification and Function of Antibiotics .............. 500
30.3 Development of Bacterial Antibiotic Resistance .......... 501
30.4 Transfer of Genetic Material by Horizontal Gene
Transfer ................................................ 501
30.5 Prevalent Environments Favoring HGT ..................... 501
30.6 Isolation and Detection of Antibiotic-Resistant
Bacteria ................................................ 502
30.7 Incidence of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in Various
Environments ............................................ 502
30.7.1 Environmental Samples and Food .................. 502
30.7.2 Hospitals ....................................... 503
30.7.3 Feedlots ........................................ 504
30.8 Gene Transfer Between Bacteria—How Prelevant Is It? ..... 504
30.8.1 Environmental Samples ............................ 504
30.9 Summary and Conclusions ................................. 505
Questions and Problems .................................. 505
References and Additional Reading ....................... 505
CHAPTER 31 Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disruptors .......... 506
R. Arnold, D. Quanrud, C.P. Gerba, and I.L. Pepper
31.1 Endocrine Disruptors and Hormones ....................... 507
31.2 Significance of EDCs in Water ........................... 507
31.3 Incidence of EDCs in Water .............................. 508
31.4 Fate and Transport of Estrogenic Compounds in
Municipal Wastewater .................................... 511
31.5 Methods for Measuring Estrogenic Activity in Water ...... 512
31.6 What are the Risk of EDCs? .............................. 514
Questions and Problems .................................. 575
References and Additional Reading ....................... 575
CHAPTER 32 Epilogue: Is the Future of Pollution History? ..... 576
I.L. Pepper, C.P. Gerba, and M.L. Brusseau
32.1 The Role of Government in Controlling Pollution ......... 577
32.2 Research Priorities Necessary to Protect Human Health ... 517
32.3 Pollution Prevention of Earth, Air, and Water ........... 517
32.4 Is the Future of Pollution History? ..................... 518
References and Additional Reading ....................... 520
Index ......................................................... 521
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