Condie K.C. Earth as an evolving planetary system. - Burlington; London: Academic Press, 2005. - xiv, 447 p.: ill. - Ref.: p.407-441. - Ind.: p.443-447. - ISBN 0-12-088392-9  Место хранения:   039 | Институт мерзлотоведения CO РАН | Якутск

Оглавление / Contents

Preface ........................................................ v 1 Earth Systems ............................................... 1 Earth as a Planetary System ................................. 1 Structure of the Earth ...................................... 3 Plate Tectonics ............................................. 5 Is the Earth Unique? ........................................ 8 Interacting Earth Systems ................................... 9 Further Reading ............................................ 11 2 The Crust .................................................. 13 Introduction ............................................... 13 Crustal Types .............................................. 14 Oceanic Crust ........................................... 14 Transitional Crust ...................................... 16 Continental Crust ....................................... 17 Continent Size ............................................. 18 Seismic Crustal Structure .................................. 19 Mohorovic Discontinuity ................................. 19 Crustal Layers .......................................... 20 Crustal Types ........................................... 21 Heat Flow .................................................. 25 Heat-Flow Distribution .................................. 25 Heat Production and Heat Flow in the Continents ......... 26 Age Dependence of Heat Flow ............................. 29 Exhumation and Cratonization ............................... 30 Introduction ............................................ 30 Unraveling Pressure-Temperature-Time Histories .......... 31 Some Typical Pressure-Temperature-Time Paths ............ 32 Cratonization ........................................... 33 Processes in the Continental Crust ......................... 34 Rheology ................................................ 34 Role of Fluids and Crustal Melts ........................ 35 Crustal Composition ........................................ 36 Approaches .............................................. 36 Seismic-Wave Velocities ................................. 37 Seismic Reflections in the Lower Continental Crust ...... 40 Sampling of Precambrian Shields ......................... 41 Use of Fine-Grained Terrigenous Sediments ............... 41 Exhumed Crustal Blocks .................................. 42 Crustal Xenoliths ....................................... 44 An Estimate of Crustal Composition ...................... 45 Crustal Provinces and Terranes ............................. 47 Crustal Province and Terrane Boundaries .................... 52 The United Plates of America ............................... 53 Supercontinents ............................................ 54 Further Reading ............................................ 57 3 Tectonic Settings .......................................... 59 Introduction ............................................... 59 Ocean Ridges ............................................... 60 Midocean-Ridge Basalts .................................. 60 Ophiolites .............................................. 61 Tectonic Settings Related to Mantle Plumes ................. 66 Oceanic Plateaus and Aseismic Ridges .................... 66 Continental Flood Basalts ............................... 66 Hotspot Volcanic Islands ................................ 68 Giant Mafic Dyke Swarms ................................. 71 Continental Rifts .......................................... 74 General Features ........................................ 74 Rock Assemblages ........................................ 74 Rift Development and Evolution .......................... 75 Cratons and Passive Margins ................................ 77 Arc Systems ................................................ 78 Subduction-Related Rock Assemblages ..................... 78 High- and Low-Stress Subduction Zones ................... 84 Arc Processes ........................................... 85 High-Pressure Metamorphism .............................. 87 Igneous Rocks ........................................... 87 Compositional Variation of Arc Magmas ................... 89 Orogens .................................................... 90 Two Types of Orogens .................................... 90 Orogenic Rock Assemblages ............................... 92 Tectonic Elements of a Collisional Orogen ............... 93 Sutures ................................................. 95 Foreland and Hinterland Basins .......................... 96 The Himalayas ........................................... 96 Uncertain Tectonic Settings ................................ 97 Anorogenic Granites ..................................... 97 Archean Greenstones .................................... 100 Mineral and Energy Deposits ............................... 107 Mineral Deposits ....................................... 107 Energy Deposits ........................................ 1ll Plate Tectonics with Time ................................. 112 Further Reading ........................................... 114 4 The Mantle ................................................ 115 Introduction .............................................. 115 Seismic Structure of the Mantle ........................... 115 Upper Mantle ........................................... 115 Lower Mantle ........................................... 117 Mantle Upwellings and Geoid Anomalies ..................... 118 Temperature Distribution in the Mantle .................... 120 The Lithosphere ........................................... 122 Composition ............................................ 123 The Low-Velocity Zone ..................................... 132 The Transition Zone ....................................... 133 The 410-km Discontinuity ............................... 133 The 660-km Discontinuity ............................... 135 The Lower Mantle .......................................... 137 General Features ....................................... 137 Descending Slabs ....................................... 137 The D" Layer ........................................... 138 Plate-Driving Forces ...................................... 140 Mantle Plumes ............................................. 141 Introduction ........................................... 141 Hotspots ............................................... 141 Plume Characteristics .................................. 144 Mantle Geochemical Components ............................. 146 Introduction ........................................... 146 Identifying Mantle Components .......................... 146 Mixing Regimes in the Mantle ........................... 151 Summary ................................................ 153 Convection in the Mantle .................................. 154 Nature of Convection ................................... 154 Passive Ocean Ridges ................................... 155 The Layered Convection Model ........................... 156 Toward a Convection Model for Earth .................... 158 Further Reading ........................................... 160 5 The Core .................................................. 161 Introduction .............................................. 161 Core Temperature .......................................... 162 The Inner Core ............................................ 162 Anisotrophy of the Inner Core .......................... 162 Rotation of the Inner Core ............................. 163 Composition of the Core ................................... 164 Age of the Core ........................................... 166 Generation of the Earth's Magnetic Field .................. 167 The Geodynamo .......................................... 167 Fluid Motions in the Outer Core ........................ 168 Fueling the Geodynamo .................................. 169 How the Geodynamo Works ................................ 170 What Causes Magnetic Reversals? ........................ 170 Origin of the Core ........................................ 172 Segregation of Iron in the Mantle ...................... 172 Siderophile Element Distribution in the Mantle ......... 172 Growth and Evolution of the Core ....................... 172 Where Do We Go From Here? ................................. 173 Further Reading ........................................... 174 6 The Atmosphere and Oceans ................................. 175 Introduction .............................................. 175 General Features of the Atmosphere ........................ 175 The Primitive Atmosphere .................................. 177 The Secondary Atmosphere .................................. 178 Excess Volatiles ....................................... 178 Composition of the Early Atmosphere .................... 179 Growth Rate of the Atmosphere .......................... 180 The Faint Young Sun Paradox ............................ 181 The Carbon Cycle .......................................... 182 The Precambrian Atmosphere ................................ 184 The Origin of Oxygen ...................................... 185 Oxygen Controls in the Atmosphere ...................... 185 Geologic Indicators of Ancient Atmospheric Oxygen Levels ................................................. 186 The Carbon Isotope Record .............................. 190 The Sulfur Isotope Record .............................. 192 The Growth of Atmospheric Oxygen ....................... 195 Phanerozoic Atmospheric History ........................... 196 The Oceans ................................................ 198 Sea Level .............................................. 199 Changes in the Composition of Seawater with Time ....... 202 The Dolomite-Limestone Problem ......................... 206 Archean Carbonates ..................................... 207 Sedimentary Phosphates ................................. 208 The Early Oceans ....................................... 209 Paleoclimates ............................................. 210 Paleoclimatic Indicators ............................... 211 Long-Term Paleoclimate-Driving Forces .................. 212 Glaciation ............................................. 212 Precambrian Climatic Regimes ........................... 214 The Snowball Earth ..................................... 217 Phanerozoic Climatic Regimes ........................... 218 Conclusions ............................................... 220 Further Reading ........................................... 221 7 Living Systems ............................................ 223 General Features .......................................... 223 Origin of Life ............................................ 223 Role of Impacts ........................................ 224 Ribonucleic Acid World ................................. 226 Hydrothermal Vents ..................................... 227 First Life ............................................. 230 Possibility of Extraterrestrial Life ................... 231 Isotopic Evidence of Early Life ........................ 232 First Fossils ............................................. 233 Biomarkers ............................................. 233 Paleosols .............................................. 234 Origin of Photosynthesis .................................. 235 Tree of Life .............................................. 236 Stromatolites ............................................. 238 Appearance of Eukaryotes .................................. 239 Origin of Metazoans ....................................... 240 Neoproterozoic Multicellular Organisms .................... 241 Cambrian Explosion and Appearance of Skeletons ......... 242 Evolution of Phanerozoic Life Forms ....................... 244 Biologic Benchmarks ....................................... 245 Mass Extinctions .......................................... 245 Mass Extinctions and Originations ...................... 247 Glaciation and Mass Extinctions ........................ 250 Impact-Related Extinctions ............................. 251 Extinctions at the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary ........ 253 Impact and a 580-Ma Mass Extinction .................... 260 Permian-Triassic Extinction ............................ 260 Further Reading ........................................... 262 8 Crustal and Mantle Evolution .............................. 265 Introduction .............................................. 265 Earth's Thermal History ................................... 265 Earth's Primitive Crust ................................... 266 Origin of the First Crust .............................. 266 Composition of the Primitive Crust ..................... 268 Earth's Oldest Rocks and Minerals ......................... 270 Crustal Origin ............................................ 276 How Continents Grew ....................................... 277 General Features ....................................... 277 Growth by Mafic Underplating ........................... 278 Oceanic Plateaus and Continental Growth ................ 280 Growth by Plate Collisions ............................. 282 Continental Growth Rates .................................. 282 Role of Recycling ...................................... 284 Freeboard .............................................. 288 Nb/U and Nb/Th Ratios and Continental Growth ........... 288 Continental Growth in the Last 200 Million Years ....... 290 Toward a Continental Growth Rate Model ................. 291 Secular Changes in the Crust .............................. 292 Upper Continental Crust ................................ 292 Alkaline Igneous Rocks ................................. 297 Anorthosites ........................................... 297 Ophiolites ............................................. 298 Blueschists ............................................ 299 Summary of Chemical Changes at the Archean- Proterozoic Boundary ................................... 299 Secular Changes in the Mantle ............................. 302 Tracking Mantle-plume Sources into the Archean ......... 303 How Hot Was the Archean Mantle? ........................ 305 Mantle Lithosphere Evolution ........................... 308 Were Mantle Plumes More Widespread in the Archean? ..... 308 Evolution of the Crust-Mantle System ...................... 310 Archean Plate Tectonics ................................ 310 Toward an Archean Model ................................ 311 Nonplate Tectonic Models for the Archean ............... 312 Further Reading ........................................... 313 9 The Supercontinent Cycle and Mantle-Plume Events .......... 315 Introduction .............................................. 315 Supercontinent Cycle ...................................... 316 Supercontinent Cycle in the Last 1000 Million Years .... 317 Juvenile Continental Crust and the Supercontinent Cycle .................................................. 320 Mantle Plumes and Supercontinent Breakup ............... 321 Large Plates and Mantle Upwelling ...................... 324 Patterns of Cyclicity .................................. 325 First Supercontinent ................................... 326 Supercontinents, Mantle Plumes, and Earth Systems ......... 327 Supercontinent Formation ............................... 327 Supercontinent Breakup ................................. 329 Mantle-Plume Events .................................... 330 Mantle-Plume Events Through Time .......................... 331 Mid-Cretaceous Event ................................... 332 Late Paleozoic Event ................................... 335 Ordovician Event ....................................... 335 1.9 Ga Event ........................................... 336 2.7 Ga Event ........................................... 345 Other Possible Mantle-Plume Events ..................... 346 What Causes a Mantle-Plume Event? ......................... 347 Superchrons and Mantle Plumes .......................... 347 Slab Avalanches ........................................ 349 Core Rotational Dynamics ............................... 349 Effects of Impacts on Mantle-Plume Events .............. 350 Mantle-Plume Events and Supercontinents ................... 350 A Plume-Supercontinent Connection? ........................ 350 Two Types of Mantle-Plume Events ....................... 353 Further Reading ........................................... 354 10 Comparative Planetary Evolution ........................... 355 Introduction .............................................. 355 Impact Chronology in the Inner Solar System ............... 356 Members of the Solar System ............................... 356 Planets ................................................ 356 Satellites and Planetary Rings ......................... 368 Comets and Other Icy Bodies ............................ 373 Asteroids .............................................. 374 Meteorites ............................................. 376 Chemical Composition of the Earth and the Moon ............ 381 Age and Early Evolution of the Earth ...................... 383 Extinct Radioactivity .................................. 383 First 700 Million Years ................................ 383 Comparative Evolution of the Atmospheres of the Earth, Venus, and Mars ........................................... 385 Continuously Habitable Zone ............................... 388 Condensation and Accretion of the Planets ................. 388 Solar Nebula ........................................... 388 Heterogeneous Accretion Models ......................... 392 Homogeneous Accretion Models ........................... 393 Accretion of the Earth ................................. 394 Extrasolar Planets ..................................... 396 Origin of the Moon ........................................ 396 Fission Models ......................................... 397 Double-Planet Models ................................... 398 Capture Models ......................................... 399 Giant Impactor Model ................................... 399 Earth's Rotational History ................................ 401 Comparative Planetary Evolution ........................... 402 Further Reading ........................................... 405 References ................................................ 407 Index ........................................................ 443