Part I Introductory Concepts
Chapter 1. Introduction ......................................... 3
Chapter 2. Electrons and Photons ................................ 7
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 7
2.2 The Fundamental Relationships ............................. 8
Ludwig Boltzmann .......................................... 8
2.3 Properties of Photons .................................... 10
2.4 Properties of Electrons .................................. 14
2.5 Some History ............................................. 19
2.6 Changing Places: How Electrons Behave in Solids .......... 22
2.7 Summary .................................................. 28
Bibliography ................................................... 29
Problems ....................................................... 30
Part II Photonic Devices
Chapter 3. Photodiodes ......................................... 35
3.1 Introduction ............................................. 35
3.2 The Current-Voltage Equation for Photodiodes ............. 36
3.3 Photodiode Operation: The Photocurrent Mode and the
Photovoltage Mode ........................................ 45
3.4 Photodiode Properties .................................... 46
3.4.1 Spectral Response ................................. 46
3.4.2 Quantum Efficiency ................................ 49
3.5 Summary .................................................. 54
Bibliography ................................................... 55
Problems ....................................................... 56
Chapter 4. Electrical Response Time of Diodes .................. 59
4.1 Introduction ............................................. 59
4.2 Modeling the Response Time of Photodiodes ................ 60
4.3 Diffusion Time ........................................... 61
4.4 Drift .................................................... 63
4.5 The Resistance-Capacitance Response Time ................. 64
4.6 Capacitance of Diodes in Forward Bias .................... 68
4.7 Measurement of Diode Capacitance and Carrier
Concentration ............................................ 69
4.8 Application to Light-Emitting Diodes ..................... 70
4.9 Summary .................................................. 71
Bibliography ................................................... 71
Problems ....................................................... 72
Chapter 5. Photoconductivity ................................... 75
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 75
5.2 Conductivity and Mobility ................................ 75
5.3 Gain and Bandwidth ....................................... 77
5.4 Engineering Photoconductivity ............................ 81
5.5 Photographic Film and Photoconductivity .................. 85
5.6 Sensitization ............................................ 89
5.7 Summary .................................................. 94
Bibliography ................................................... 96
Problems ....................................................... 97
Chapter 6. Light-Emitting Diodes ............................... 99
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 99
6.2 Recombination of Excess Carriers—Direct Generation of
Light ................................................... 101
6.3 The Energy Spectrum of Light ............................ 105
6.4 Quantum Efficiency ...................................... 111
6.5 Beating the Experts: New Thinking Creates a Pathway to
Increased Efficiency .................................... 113
6.6 Response Time ........................................... 119
6.7 Steady-State Input Electrical Current and Output LED
Optical Power ........................................... 120
6.8 Rise Time of the Light-Emitting Diode ................... 125
6.9 Summary ................................................. 132
6.10 Review of Important Concepts ............................ 133
Bibliography .................................................. 134
Problems ...................................................... 135
Chapter 7. Organic Light-Emitting Diodes ...................... 139
7.1 Introduction ............................................ 139
7.2 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes: A Revolutionary Light
Source .................................................. 143
7.3 Energy Band Structure of Organic Semiconductors ......... 147
7.4 Optoelectronic Organic Materials ........................ 148
7.4.1 Polymer and Small Molecule Structures ............ 148
7.4.2 Organic Semiconductor Doping to Modify
Electrical Conductivity .......................... 152
7.5 OLED structures ......................................... 154
7.5.1 Energy-Level Diagram ............................. 154
7.5.2 Organic Semiconductor Doping to Modify Optical
Emission Efficiency .............................. 157
7.6 Current-Voltage Characteristic .......................... 158
7.6.1 Zero Bias ........................................ 158
7.6.2 Flat-Band Condition .............................. 159
7.7 Coupling the Light Out of the Diode ..................... 162
7.8 Conclusions ............................................. 163
Bibliography .................................................. 166
Problems and Exercises ........................................ 167
Chapter 8. Lasers ............................................. 169
8.1 Amplifiers and Feedback ................................. 170
8.2 Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission ..................... 172
8.3 Optical Gain ............................................ 175
8.4 Obtaining Population Inversion .......................... 178
8.5 Optical Feedback—Making a Laser ......................... 184
8.6 Threshold—Going Over the Edge ........................... 189
8.7 A True Story ............................................ 193
8.8 Summary ................................................. 194
Bibliography .................................................. 196
Problems and Exercises ........................................ 197
Part III Advanced Topics
Chapter 9. Direct Modulation of Laser Diodes .................. 201
9.1 Introduction ............................................ 201
9.2 Time-Dependent Behavior of Laser Diodes during Current
Modulation .............................................. 203
Part 1. Before the laser reaches threshold: 0 < t <
τd .............................................. 206
Part 2. After the laser has reached threshold: τd < t
< T0 where T0 is the bit period ................. 208
9.3 Summary .................................................. 212
Bibliography .................................................. 212
Problems and Exercises ........................................ 213
Chapter 10. Optical Fibers and Optical Fiber Amplifiers ....... 215
10.1 Introduction ............................................ 215
10.2 Glass ................................................... 217
10.3 Optical Fiber Engineering ............................... 219
10.4 Waveguiding in Optical Fibers ........................... 222
10.5 More Capacity ........................................... 227
10.6 Optical Amplifiers ...................................... 235
10.7 Summary ................................................. 242
Bibliography .................................................. 243
Problems ...................................................... 244
Part IV Characterizing Photonic Devices in the Laboratory
Chapter 11. Measurements in Photonics ......................... 249
11.1 Introduction ............................................ 249
11.2 Lenses .................................................. 250
11.3 Monochromators and Spectrometers ........................ 252
11.4 Gratings ................................................ 254
11.5 Mirrors ................................................. 256
11.6 The Spectrometer/Monochromator System ................... 257
11.7 Lock-in Amplifier ....................................... 258
11.8 Chopping Wheel or Chopper ............................... 260
11.9 Photon Detectors ........................................ 261
11.10 Curve Tracer ............................................ 262
11.11 Summary ................................................. 262
Bibliography .................................................. 262
Problems ...................................................... 263
Chapter 12. Experimental Photonics: Device Characterization
in the Laboratory ................................. 265
Introduction .................................................. 265
12.1 Current-Voltage Characteristics of Photodiodes and
LEDs .................................................... 266
12.1.1 Objectives ...................................... 266
12.1.2 Background ...................................... 266
12.1.3 Recommended Equipment ........................... 266
12.1.4 Procedure ....................................... 266
12.1.5 Analysis ........................................ 268
12.2 Detection Using the Lock-in Amplifier ................... 269
12.2.1 Objectives ...................................... 269
12.2.2 Background ...................................... 269
12.2.3 Recommended Equipments .......................... 269
12.2.4 Procedure ....................................... 270
12.2.5 Analysis ........................................ 271
12.3 Optica) Measurements Using the Monochromator and
Spectrometer ............................................ 272
12.3.1 Objectives ...................................... 272
12.3.2 Background ...................................... 272
12.3.3 Recommended Equipment ........................... 273
12.3.4 Procedure ....................................... 273
12.3.5 Analysis ........................................ 276
12.4 Optical Properties of Light-Emitting Diodes ............. 277
12.4.1 Objectives ...................................... 277
12.4.2 Background ...................................... 277
12.4.3 Procedure ....................................... 278
12.4.4 Analysis ........................................ 278
12.5 Device Capacitance ...................................... 279
12.5.1 Objectives ...................................... 279
12.5.2 Background ...................................... 279
12.5.3 Recommended Equipment ........................... 279
12.5.4 Procedure ....................................... 279
12.5.5 Analysis ........................................ 281
12.6 Characterization of Lasers .............................. 283
12.6.1 Objectives ...................................... 283
12.6.2 Background ...................................... 283
12.6.3 Recommended Equipments .......................... 284
12.6.4 Procedure ....................................... 284
12.6.5 Measurements to Make ............................ 291
12.6.6 Questions to Think About ........................ 294
12.6.7 Analysis ........................................ 297
Index ......................................................... 299
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