Part A General Biology
1 Biodiversity, Biology and Conservation of Medicinal
Plants of the Thar Desert
Jaya Arora, Shaily Goyal, and Kishan Gopal Ramawat
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 3
1.2 Deserts of the World .................................... 4
1.2.1 The Thar Desert .................................. 4
1.2.2 Climate .......................................... 5
1.2.3 Topographical Features ........................... 5
1.2.4 Phytogeography ................................... 5
1.3 Ethnobotanical Studies .................................. 6
1.4 Biology of Desert Plants ................................ 6
1.5 Medicinal and Biological Activities ..................... 7
1.6 Methods of Propagation ................................. 16
1.7 Biotechnological Approaches ............................ 19
1.8 Conclusions ............................................ 23
References .................................................. 23
2 Potentiality of Hydrocarbon Yielding Plants for Future
Energy and Chemicals
Dipul Kalita
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 37
2.2 Screening and Processing of Biomass for Bio-Crude ...... 39
2.3 Extraction and Characterisation of Plant Extracts ...... 42
2.4 Processing of Bio-Crude for Hydrocarbon ................ 45
2.5 Current Research in India .............................. 47
2.6 The Economics of Plant Hydrocarbon Production .......... 48
2.7 Research at NEIST Jorhat ............................... 49
2.8 Conclusion ............................................. 51
References .................................................. 53
3 Biology and Biotechnological Advances in Jatropha
curcas - a Biodiesel Plant
Muppala P. Reddy and D.V.N. Sudheer Pamidimarri
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 58
3.2 Jatropha curcas - a Biodiesel Plant .................... 58
3.2.1 J. curcas as Folk Medicine ...................... 59
3.2.2 J. curcas Seed Cake as Fertiliser ............... 59
3.2.3 Other Uses of J. curcas ......................... 60
3.2.4 Toxicity of J. curcas ........................... 60
3.3 Genetic Diversity and Phylogenetics of Jatropha
Species ................................................ 60
3.3.1 Intraspecific Genetic Diversity in J. curcas .... 62
3.3.2 Markers for Toxic and Non-Toxic Varieties of
J. curcas ....................................... 64
3.4 Tissue Culture and Genetic Transformation .............. 64
3.4.1 In Vitro Micropropagation of Jatropha ........... 65
3.4.2 Genetic Transformation Studies .................. 65
3.5 Conclusions and Prospects .............................. 67
References .................................................. 67
4 Biology of Annual Plants in Arid and Semi-Arid Desert
Regions of China
Xuehua Li
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 73
4.2 Species Diversity and Distribution Characteristics ..... 74
4.2.1 Annual Plants in the Alashan Desert of Inner
Mongolia ........................................ 75
4.2.2 Ephemeral Plants in the Gurbanturggut Desert
of Xingjiang .................................... 75
4.3 Seed Germination Traits and Strategies ................. 76
4.3.1 Seed Germination Traits and Process ............. 76
4.3.2 Seed Germination Strategies and Adaptability
to Different Environments ....................... 78
4.4 Soil Seed Bank and its Relationship to Vegetation ...... 80
4.4.1 Study Status of Soil Seed Banks in Deserts ...... 80
4.4.2 Proportion of Annual Species in Soil Seed
Banks ........................................... 81
4.4.3 Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Soil Seed
Banks ........................................... 82
4.4.4 Relationship of Soil Seed Banks to Aboveground
Vegetation ...................................... 84
4.5 Population Competition and Environmental Effects ....... 85
4.6 Effects of Animals on Annual Species ................... 85
4.7 Conclusion ............................................. 85
References .................................................. 86
5 Soil Biology in Traditional Agroforestry Systems of the
Indian Desert
S. Sundaramoorthy, Santosh Kumar Mehar, and Manohar Singh
Suthar
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 92
5.2 Agroforestry in Western Rajasthan ...................... 92
5.2.1 Desert Soils .................................... 93
5.3 Soil Fertility ......................................... 94
5.4 Nature of the Organic Matter ........................... 96
5.5 Litter Decomposition ................................... 98
5.6 Microorganisms ........................................ 101
5.7 Soil Enzymes .......................................... 104
5.8 Microcosm Experiment-Drying and Wetting ............... 104
References ................................................. 113
6 Aspects of Mycorrhizae in Desert Plants
Martha E. Apple
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 121
6.1.1 Deserts ........................................ 121
6.1.2 Mycorrhizae .................................... 122
6.1.3 Mycorrhizal Fungi .............................. 122
6.1.4 Taxonomy of Desert Mycorrhizal Fungi ........... 123
6.1.5 Initiation of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal
Symbioses ...................................... 124
6.2 Economics, Agriculture, and Mycorrhizae in the
Desert ................................................ 124
6.2.1 Disease Resistance ............................. 125
6.2.2 Endemic Mycorrhizal Plants as Food ............. 125
6.3 Water ................................................. 125
6.4 Ecological Considerations ............................. 126
6.4.1 Succession ..................................... 126
6.4.2 Physiognomy and Mycorrhizae .................... 126
6.4.3 Seedling Establishment ......................... 127
6.4.4 Phenology ...................................... 127
6.4.5 Salinity ....................................... 128
6.5 Mycorrhizal Helper Bacteria ........................... 128
6.5.1 Ectomycorrhizal Associated Bacteria ............ 129
6.6 Glomalin .............................................. 130
6.6.1 Glomalin and Agriculture ....................... 130
6.6.2 Glomalin, Ecosystems, and Carbon ............... 130
6.7 Conclusion ............................................ 131
References ................................................. 131
7 Anatomical Variations in the Woody Plants of Arid Areas
Shumin Yang, Ikuo Furukawa, and Zehui Jiang
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 136
7.2 Materials and Methods ................................. 137
7.2.1 Site Description ............................... 137
7.2.2 Methods ........................................ 137
7.3 Results ............................................... 139
7.3.1 Wood Anatomical Variation in Secondary
Xylem Cells .................................... 139
7.3.2 Ecological Perspectives on the Variations in
Wood Anatomy ................................... 145
7.3.3 Horizontal Variations in Vessel Element
Length and Fibre Length ........................ 147
7.4 Discussion and Conclusions ............................ 148
7.4.1 Comparison of Wood Anatomy and Diagnostic
Value .......................................... 148
7.4.2 Ecological Wood Anatomy Perspectives and
Significant Functions .......................... 150
7.4.3 Horizontal Variations in Vessel Element
Length and Fibre Length ........................ 152
References ................................................. 153
8 Diversity and Conservation in the Cactus Family
Pablo Ortega-Baes, Silvia Sühring, Jesús Sajama,
Ezequiel Sotola, Mariana Alonso-Pedano, Silvia Bravo,
and Héctor Goďinez-Alvarez
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 157
8.2 Taxonomic Diversity ................................... 159
8.3 Diversity Patterns on a Global Scale .................. 160
8.4 Factors Explaining Cactus Diversity ................... 161
8.5 Threatened Species .................................... 165
8.6 Conservation Strategies ............................... 168
8.7 Concluding Remarks .................................... 170
References ................................................. 171
Part В Reproductive Biology
9 Reproductive Biology of Some Gum-Producing Indian Desert
Plants
Rajesh Tandon, K.R. Shivanna, and H.Y. Mohan Ram
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 178
9.2 Gum and Gum-Resin Yielding Plants ..................... 179
9.3 Phenology ............................................. 179
9.4 Floral Morphology and Sexuality ....................... 180
9.4.1 Trioecy ........................................ 182
9.4.2 Cryptic Monoecy ................................ 183
9.5 Pollination Biology ................................... 184
9.6 Breeding System ....................................... 187
9.6.1 Late-Acting Self-Incompatibility ............... 187
9.6.2 Apomixis ....................................... 189
9.7 Pollination Efficiency and Fruit Set .................. 189
9.8 Seed Germination and Seedling Establishment ........... 190
9.9 Concluding Remarks .................................... 192
References ................................................. 194
10 Reproductive Biology of Cactaceae
Maŕia del Carmen Mandujano, Israel Carrillo-Angeles,
Conceptión Marťinez-Peralta, and Jordan Golubov
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 198
10.2 The Cactus Family ..................................... 200
10.2.1 Evolution and Systematics ...................... 200
10.2.2 The Cactus Flower .............................. 201
10.3 Breeding Systems ...................................... 202
10.3.1 Self Incompatibility ........................... 213
10.4 Mating Systems ........................................ 215
10.4.1 Inbreeding Depression .......................... 219
10.5 Pollination Syndromes ................................. 220
10.6 Clonal Reproduction ................................... 221
10.7 Genetic Diversity ..................................... 222
10.8 Conclusions ........................................... 223
References ................................................. 224
11 Parthenocarpy and Seed Production in Burseraceae
Maŕia F. Ramos-Ordoñez, Judith Márquez-Guzmán, and
Ma. del Coro Arizmendi
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 231
11.2 Parthenocarpy ......................................... 232
11.3 Parthenocarpy in Burseraceae .......................... 233
11.4 Bursera morelensis .................................... 234
11.5 Fruit Crop by B. morelensis ........................... 235
References ................................................. 237
Part С Ecophysiological Studies
12 Photosynthesis of C4 Desert Plants
Peixi Su
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 244
12.2 Photosynthetic Structure of Assimilating Organs ....... 245
12.2.1 Photosynthetic Structure of Assimilating
Shoots of Haloxylon ammodendron and
Calligonum mongolicum .......................... 245
12.2.2 Photosynthetic Structure of Leaves of Salsola
arbuscula and Salsola collina .................. 245
12.3 δ13C Values of Photosynthetic Organs .................. 247
12.4 Diurnal Course of Gas Exchange ........................ 252
12.5 Diurnal Changes in Chlorophyll Fluorescence ........... 254
12.6 Changes of Photosynthetic and Physiological
Parameters under CO2 Enrichment ....................... 256
References ................................................. 258
13 Polyamines and Plant Adaptation to Saline Environments
Vladimir V. Kuznetsov and Nina I. Shevyakova
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 262
13.2 What are Polyamines? .................................. 263
13.2.1 Biosynthesis ................................... 263
13.2.2 Catabolism ..................................... 265
13.2.3 Intracellular and Inter-Organ Transport ........ 265
13.2.4 Polyamine Conjugates ........................... 266
13.2.5 Components of Signalling Systems ............... 266
13.3 Polyamines and Protection of Plants against Salt
Stress ................................................ 267
13.3.1 Regulation of Endogenous Plants Polyamine
Content under Stress ........................... 267
13.3.2 Possible Mechanisms of the Protective Actions
of Polyamines in Plants under Salt Stress ...... 269
13.3.3 Interactions Between Polyamines and Other
Signal Molecules ............................... 278
13.3.4 Some Modern Approaches Toward Elucidation of
Polyamine Metabolism and their Protective
Functions under Stress ......................... 284
13.4 Conclusions ........................................... 290
References ................................................. 291
14 Ecology of Inland Saline Plants
Pawan K. Kasera and Sher Mohammed
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 299
14.2 Classification of Inland Saline Vegetation in
Western Rajasthan ..................................... 302
14.3 Adaptive Strategies of Inland Halophytes .............. 308
14.4 Proline Accumulation under Salt Stress ................ 313
14.5 Soil-Plant Analyses ................................... 314
14.6 Metabolic Behaviour ................................... 316
14.7 Conclusions ........................................... 317
References ................................................. 318
15 Ecophysiology of Prosopis Species From the Arid Lands
of Argentina: What Do We Know About Adaptation
to Stressful Environments?
Pablo E. Villagra, Alejandra Vilela, Carla Giordano,
and Juan A. Alvarez
15.1 Introduction .......................................... 322
15.2 Germination and Early Seedling Growth ................. 325
15.3 Growth Patterns ....................................... 326
15.4 Phenology and Fruit Production ........................ 328
15.5 Mechanisms to Avoid or Tolerate Water Stress .......... 329
15.5.1 Water Sources and Soil Exploration ............. 329
15.5.2 Morpho-Physiological Adaptations to Tolerate
Water Deficits ................................. 330
15.6 Salinity Tolerance .................................... 332
15.7 Other Factors Affecting Prosopis Growth ............... 333
15.8 Implications for Prosopis Use and Management .......... 334
15.9 Concluding Remarks .................................... 336
References ................................................. 336
16 Plant Growth Inhibitors From Mesquite (Prosopis
juliflora)
Hiroshi Nakano
16.1 Introduction .......................................... 342
16.2 Allelopathy of Mesquite Leaves in the Laboratory ...... 343
16.3 Plant Growth Inhibitors from the Exudates of
Mesquite Leaves ....................................... 346
16.4 Leaching of L-Tryptophan from the Leaves of Mesquite
Plants ................................................ 348
16.5 Plant Growth Inhibitory Alkaloids in the Extracts
of Mesquite Leaves .................................... 349
References .................................................... 350
Part D Biotechnological Studies
17 Genetic Variation in the Tunisian Date Palm
(Phoenix dactylifera L.)
Soumaya Rhouma, Salwa Zehdi-Azouzi, Sonia Dakhlaoui-
Dkhil, Ali Ould Mohamed Salem, Ahmed Othmani, Emira
Cherif, Mohamed Marrakchi, and Mokhtar Trifi
17.1 Introduction .......................................... 355
17.1.1 History ........................................ 355
17.1.2 Botanical Profile .............................. 356
17.1.3 Production Levels and Locations ................ 357
17.1.4 Propagation .................................... 358
17.1.5 Date Varieties ................................. 358
17.2 Date Palms in Tunisia ................................. 358
17.3 Genetic Variation in Date Palm ........................ 360
17.4 Molecular Diversity and Development of an
Identification Key .................................... 364
17.5 Biotechnology in Tunisian Date Palms .................. 365
17.6 Conclusions ........................................... 366
References ................................................. 367
18 Biology and Multiplication of Prosopis species Grown
in the Thar Desert
R. Raj Bhansali
18.1 Introduction .......................................... 371
18.2 Origins and Distribution .............................. 373
18.3 Prosopis cineraria .................................... 373
18.3.1 Socio-Cultural Values .......................... 375
18.3.2 Tree Description and Characters ................ 376
18.3.3 Abiotic Resistance ............................. 378
18.3.4 Biotic Stresses ................................ 379
18.3.5 Propagation .................................... 381
18.3.6 Economic importance ............................ 389
18.4 Prosopis juliflora .................................... 392
18.4.1 Tree Description and Characters ................ 393
18.4.2 Pests and Diseases ............................. 394
18.4.3 Propagation by Seed ............................ 395
18.4.4 Vegetative Propagation ......................... 396
18.4.5 Economic Importance ............................ 398
18.5 Conclusion ............................................ 400
References ................................................. 401
19 Biotechnology Advances in Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis)
Muppala P. Reddy and Jitendra Chikara
19.1 Introduction .......................................... 408
19.2 Genetic Improvement ................................... 408
19.2.1 Selection of Male Plants ....................... 409
19.2.2 Selection of Female Plants ..................... 409
19.2.3 Breeding ....................................... 411
19.3 Seed Oil Content and De-oiled Cake Applications ....... 412
19.4 Sex Identification .................................... 413
19.5 Molecular Aspects of Oil Synthesis .................... 413
19.6 Vegetative Propagation ................................ 414
19.6.1 Micropropagation ............................... 414
19.6.2 Somatic Embryogenesis .......................... 415
19.7 Conclusions and Prospects ............................. 416
References ................................................. 417
20 Date Palm Cultivation in the Changing Scenario of Indian
Arid Zones: Challenges and Prospects
R. Raj Bhansali
20.1 Introduction .......................................... 424
20.1.1 Indian Arid Zone ............................... 424
20.1.2 Vegetation ..................................... 425
20.1.3 Climatic Features .............................. 425
20.1.4 Project IGNP ................................... 426
20.2 Requirements for Date Palm Cultivation ................ 426
20.2.1 Agro Climatic Zones ............................ 426
20.2.2 Soils .......................................... 428
20.2.3 Temperature .................................... 428
20.3 Horticultural Aspects of Date Palm .................... 429
20.3.1 Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) ............. 429
20.3.2 Production Status .............................. 430
20.3.3 Nutritional Status ............................. 430
20.3.4 Promising Cultivars ............................ 431
20.3.5 Irrigation ..................................... 431
20.3.6 Fertiliser ..................................... 432
20.3.7 Intercropping .................................. 433
20.3.8 Pruning and Training ........................... 433
20.3.9 Flowering and Pollination ...................... 433
20.3.10 Fruit Thinning ................................ 434
20.3.11 Fruit Development ............................. 436
20.3.12 Harvesting .................................... 436
20.3.13 Post Harvest and Storage ...................... 436
20.3.14 Diseases and Pests ............................ 437
20.3.15 Propagation ................................... 437
20.4 Tissue Culture ........................................ 440
20.4.1 Somatic Embryogenesis .......................... 442
20.4.2 Suspension Culture ............................. 444
20.4.3 Somaclonal Variation ........................... 447
20.4.4 Direct Organogenesis ........................... 449
20.4.5 Advantages of Direct Organogenesis ............. 452
20.4.6 Molecular Characterisation ..................... 453
20.5 Conclusion ............................................ 454
References ................................................. 455
21 Runoff-Rainwater for Sustainable Desert Farming
Ulrich Lüttge
21.1 Introduction .......................................... 461
21.1.1 The Scenario of Precipitation in a Stern
Desert ......................................... 461
21.1.2 Historical Reminiscence ........................ 463
21.2 Methods of Sustainable Water Use by Desert Farming .... 465
21.2.1 Kanats ......................................... 466
21.2.2 Terraces in Secondary and Tertiary Wadis ....... 466
21.2.3 Desert Farms with Runoff Water-Flooding from
Large Catchment Areas .......................... 466
21.2.4 Canal Systems .................................. 468
21.2.5 Micro Catchments ............................... 471
21.3 Reconstruction of Runoff-Rainwater Farms in the
Negev Desert .......................................... 473
21.4 Conclusions and Outlook: Applicability of
Runoff-Rainwater Farming for Sustained Management
to Support Local Communities in Arid Environments ..... 475
References ................................................. 476
22 Biotechnological Approaches to Aphrodisiac Plants of
Rajasthan, India
Neelam Jain, Shaily Goyal, and Kishan Gopal Ramawat
22.1 Introduction .......................................... 479
22.2 Erectile Dysfunction .................................. 480
22.3 Aphrodisiacs .......................................... 481
22.3.1 Butea monosperma Lamk. (syn. B. frondosa
Koen. ex Roxb., Fabaceae) ...................... 483
22.3.2 Chlorophytum borivilianum Sant. et Fernand.
(Liliaceae) .................................... 483
22.3.3 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Hypoxidaceae) .... 485
22.3.4 Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC (Fabaceae) ............. 486
22.3.5 Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophyllaceae) ........ 487
22.3.6 Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. (Solanaceae) .... 490
22.4 Conclusion ............................................ 491
References .................................................... 491
Index ......................................................... 497
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