Preface ....................................................... iii
1. PLANTS, TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS ......................... 1-14
Plants and Kingdoms of Life ................................. 1
Two Kingdom System ........................................ 1
Two Empires Three Kingdoms ................................ 2
Five Kingdom System ....................................... 2
Six or Seven Kingdoms? .................................... 2
The Plant Kingdom ......................................... 6
Taxonomy and Systematics .................................... 7
Basic Components (Principles) of Systematics .............. 8
Aims of Systematics ...................................... 11
Advancement Levels in Systematics ........................ 12
2. BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE .................................. 15-45
Need for Scientific names .................................. 15
Why Latin? ............................................... 16
Development of Botanical Code .............................. 16
Contents of Botanical Code ................................. 17
Preamble ................................................. 17
Principles of ICBN ....................................... 18
Names of Taxa ............................................ 18
The Type Method .......................................... 23
Author Citation .......................................... 25
Publication of Names ..................................... 26
Rejection of Names ....................................... 28
Principle of Priority .................................... 30
Names of Hybrids ......................................... 34
Names of Cultivated Plants ............................... 35
Unified Biological Nomenclature ............................ 35
Draft BioCode ............................................ 36
PhyloCode ................................................ 38
3. HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION ............................. 46-55
Taxonomic groups, categories and ranks ..................... 46
Utilization of categories .................................. 48
Species concept .......................................... 49
Infraspecific ranks ...................................... 53
Genus .................................................... 54
Family ................................................... 54
4. DESCRIPTIVE TERMINOLOGY ................................. 56-90
Habit and life span ........................................ 56
Habitat .................................................... 57
Roots ...................................................... 57
Stems ...................................................... 58
Leaves ..................................................... 61
Leaf arrangement ......................................... 62
Leaf duration ............................................ 63
Leaf incision ............................................ 63
Stipules ................................................. 65
Leaf shape ............................................... 65
Leaf margin .............................................. 66
Leaf base ................................................ 66
Leaf apex ................................................ 67
Leaf surface ............................................. 68
Venation ................................................. 69
Inflorescence .............................................. 69
Racemose types ........................................... 69
Cymose types ............................................. 70
Specialized types ........................................ 71
Flower ..................................................... 71
Calyx .................................................... 73
Corolla .................................................. 74
Perianth ................................................. 74
Androecium ............................................... 74
Gynoecium ................................................ 77
Fruit ...................................................... 79
Simple fruits ............................................ 80
Aggregate fruits ......................................... 82
Multiple fruits .......................................... 83
Floral formula ............................................. 83
Floral diagram ............................................. 83
5. PROCESS OF IDENTIFICATION .............................. 91-127
Specimen preparation ....................................... 91
Fieldwork ................................................ 91
Equipment ................................................ 92
Collection ............................................... 93
Pressing ................................................. 93
Handling special groups .................................. 94
Drying ................................................... 94
Herbarium methods .......................................... 95
Botanical gardens ........................................ 95
Herbaria ................................................ 101
Pest Control ............................................ 105
Virtual herbarium ....................................... 106
Identification methods .................................... 108
Taxonomic literature .................................... 108
Taxonomic keys .......................................... 113
Computers in identification ............................. 120
Interactive keys Id. .................................... 121
6. VARIATION, BIOSYSTEMATICS, POPULATION GENETICS AND
EVOLUTION ............................................. 128-148
Types of variation ........................................ 128
Developmental variation ............................... 129
Environmental variation ................................. 129
Genetic variation ....................................... 129
Variance analysis ......................................... 129
Reproductive systems ...................................... 131
Outbreeding ............................................. 131
Inbreeding .............................................. 135
Apomixis ................................................ 135
Population genetics ....................................... 135
Allele frequencies ...................................... 136
Mating systems .......................................... 136
Hardy-Weinberg law ...................................... 136
Evolution ................................................. 139
Mutation ................................................ 140
Migration ............................................... 140
Random genetic drift .................................... 140
Natural selection ....................................... 141
Molecular evolution ..................................... 143
Neutral theory of evolution ............................. 143
Speciation .............................................. 144
7. TAXONOMIC EVIDENCE .................................... 149-209
Morphology ................................................ 149
Habit ................................................... 149
Underground parts ....................................... 150
Leaves .................................................. 150
Flowers ................................................. 150
Fruits .................................................. 150
Anatomy ................................................... 150
Wood anatomy ............................................ 150
Trichomes ............................................... 151
Epidermal features ...................................... 153
Leaf anatomy ............................................ 153
Floral anatomy .......................................... 153
Embryology ................................................ 154
Families marked out by distinct embryological
features ................................................ 154
Specific examples of the role of embryological data ..... 155
Palynology ................................................ 156
Pollen aggregation ...................................... 156
Pollen wall ............................................. 157
Pollen aperture ......................................... 157
Micromorphology and Ultrastructure ...................... 159
Micromorphology ........................................... 159
Ultrastructure .......................................... 161
Chromosomes ............................................... 164
Chromosomal number ...................................... 164
Chromosomal structure ................................... 167
Chromosomal behaviour ................................... 168
Chemotaxonomy ............................................. 168
Primary metabolites ..................................... 169
Secondary metabolites ................................... 169
Non-semantide Macromolecules ............................ 178
Proteins ................................................ 178
Molecular systematics ..................................... 184
Molecular evolution ..................................... 184
Location of molecular data .............................. 186
Molecular techniques .................................... 187
DNA polymorphism ........................................ 199
Examples of molecular studies ........................... 204
Gene trees .............................................. 209
8. DEVELOPING CLASSIFICATIONS ............................ 210-264
Phenetic methods .......................................... 210
Principles of taxometrics ............................... 211
Cladistic methods ......................................... 212
Phylogenetic terms ...................................... 213
Phylogenetic diagrams ................................... 221
Phylogeny and classification ............................ 225
Phylogenetic data analysis ................................ 229
Taxa-Operational Units .................................. 229
Characters .............................................. 229
Measure of similarity ................................... 234
Construction of trees ................................... 237
The Consensus tree ...................................... 251
Automated trees ......................................... 258
Gene trees and species trees ............................ 262
Developing classification ............................... 263
9. PHYLOGENY OF ANGIOSPERMS .............................. 265-296
Origin of Angiosperms ..................................... 265
What are Angiosperms? ................................... 265
What is the age of Angiosperms? ......................... 266
What is the place of their origin? ...................... 268
Are angiosperms monophyletic or polyphyletic? ........... 270
What are the possible ancestors? ........................ 270
Origin of monocotyledons ................................ 280
Basal living angiosperms .................................. 280
Casuarinaceae ........................................... 281
Magnoliids .............................................. 281
Paleoherbs .............................................. 282
Evolutionary trends ....................................... 285
Coevolution with animals ................................ 285
Basic evolutionary trends ............................... 286
Xylem evolution ......................................... 287
Stamen evolution ........................................ 289
Pollen grain evolution .................................. 292
Carpel evolution ........................................ 292
Evolution of inferior ovary ............................. 296
10. SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION ............................. 297-358
Classifications based on gross morphology ................. 297
Preliterate mankind ..................................... 297
Early literate civilisations ............................ 297
Medieval Botany ......................................... 299
Renaissance ............................................. 300
Sexual System ............................................. 302
Carolus Linnaeus ........................................ 303
Natural Systems ........................................... 306
Michel Adanson .......................................... 306
Jean B. P. Lamarck ...................................... 306
de Jussieu family ....................................... 306
de Candolle family ...................................... 307
Robert Brown ............................................ 308
George Bentham and Sir J. D. Hooker ..................... 308
Phylogenetic Systems ...................................... 312
Transitional Systems .................................... 312
Intentional phylogenetic systems ........................ 316
Modern phylogenetic systems ............................. 324
11. FAMILIES OF PTERIDOPHYTES ............................. 359-383
Lycopodiophtes ............................................ 359
Lycopodiaceae ........................................... 362
Selaginellaceae ......................................... 363
Isoetaceae .............................................. 365
Psilopsida
Ophioglossaceae ......................................... 366
Psilotaceae ............................................. 368
Equisetopsida
Equisetaceae ............................................ 370
Pteropsida
Osmundaceae ............................................. 371
Marsileaceae ............................................ 373
Salviniaceae ............................................ 374
Cyatheaceae ............................................. 376
Pteridaceae ............................................. 377
Aspleniaceae ............................................ 379
Dryopteridaceae ......................................... 380
Polypodiaceae ........................................... 382
12. FAMILIES OF GYMNOSPERMS ............................... 384-406
Cycadales
Cycadaceae .............................................. 386
Zamiaceae ............................................... 387
Ginkgoales
Ginkgoaceae ............................................. 389
Coniferales
Pinaceae ................................................ 391
Cupressaceae ............................................ 393
Podocarpaceae ........................................... 395
Araucariaceae ........................................... 396
Taxaceae ................................................ 398
Gnetales
Ephedraceae ............................................. 399
Gnetaceae ............................................... 401
13. MAJOR FAMILIES OF ANGIOSPERMS ......................... 407-678
Angiosperms roll of honour ................................ 408
Chloranthidae ............................................. 409
Amborellaceae ........................................... 409
Chloranthaceae .......................................... 411
Austrobaileyaceae ...................................... 413
Winteraceae
Illiciaceae ............................................. 415
Cabombaceae ............................................. 417
Nymphaeaceae ............................................ 419
Ceratophyllaceae ........................................ 421
Magnoliidae ............................................... 423
Magnoliaceae ............................................ 423
Degeneriaceae ........................................... 425
Annonaceae .............................................. 427
Calycanthaceae .......................................... 429
Lauraceae ............................................... 431
Winteraceae ............................................. 433
Saururaceae ............................................. 435
Piperaceae .............................................. 437
Alismatidae ............................................... 439
Acoraceae ............................................... 439
Araceae ................................................. 441
Butomaceae .............................................. 443
Alismataceae ............................................ 445
Hydrocharitaceae ........................................ 447
Potamogetonaceae ........................................ 449
Liliidae .................................................. 451
Pandanaceae ............................................. 451
Dioscoreaceae ........................................... 453
Smilacaceae ............................................. 455
Liliaceae ............................................... 473
Orchidaceae ............................................. 475
Iridaceae ............................................... 478
Asphodelaceae ........................................... 480
Alliaceae ............................................... 482
Subfamily ............................................... 484
Agavaceae ............................................... 485
Commelinidae .............................................. 487
Arecaceae ............................................... 488
Commelinaceae ........................................... 490
Musaceae ................................................ 492
Zingiberaceae ........................................... 494
Cannaceae .............................................. 496
Juncaceae ............................................... 498
Cyperaceae .............................................. 500
Poaceae ................................................. 502
Ranunculidae .............................................. 505
Paeoniaceae ............................................. 505
Berberidaceae ........................................... 507
Ranunculaceae ........................................... 509
Papaveraceae ............................................ 512
Hamamelididae ............................................. 514
Saxifragaceae ........................................... 514
Fagaceae ................................................ 517
Betulaceae .............................................. 519
Casuarinaceae ........................................... 521
Caryophyllidae ............................................ 523
Portulacaceae ........................................... 524
Cactaceae ............................................... 526
Nyctaginaceae ........................................... 528
Aizoaceae ............................................... 530
Chenopodiaceae .......................................... 532
Amaranthaceae ........................................... 534
Caryophyllaceae ......................................... 536
Polygonaceae ............................................ 538
Droseraceae ............................................. 540
Rosidae ................................................... 542
Celastraceae ............................................ 543
Violaceae ............................................... 545
Salicaceae .............................................. 547
Cucurbitaceae ........................................... 550
Clusiaceae .............................................. 552
Euphorbiaceae ........................................... 554
Oxalidaceae ............................................. 557
Zygophyllaceae .......................................... 559
Geraniaceae ............................................. 561
Rosaceae ................................................ 563
Fabaceae ................................................ 566
Myrtaceae ............................................... 572
Lythraceae .............................................. 574
Onagraceae .............................................. 577
Malvidae .................................................. 579
Malvaceae ............................................... 580
Grewiaceae .............................................. 583
Dipterocarpaceae ........................................ 584
Rhamnaceae .............................................. 586
Ulmaceae ................................................ 588
Moraceae ................................................ 590
Urticaceae .............................................. 592
Rafflesiaceae ........................................... 595
Capparaceae ............................................. 597
Cleomaceae .............................................. 599
Brassicaceae ............................................ 600
Rutaceae ................................................ 603
Meliaceae ............................................... 605
Anacardiaceae ........................................... 607
Sapindaceae ............................................. 610
Asteridae ................................................. 612
Hydrangeaceae ........................................... 673
Cornaceae ............................................... 627
Balsaminaceae ........................................... 629
Polemoniaceae ........................................... 631
Ebenaceae ............................................... 633
Sapotaceae .............................................. 635
Primulaceae ............................................. 637
Ericaceae ............................................... 639
Adoxaceae ............................................... 642
Apiaceae ................................................ 644
Araliaceae .............................................. 646
Asteraceae .............................................. 649
Lamiidae .................................................. 652
Solanaceae .............................................. 652
Convolvulaceae .......................................... 655
Boraginaceae ............................................ 657
Rubiaceae ............................................... 659
Apocynaceae ............................................. 661
Plantaginaceae .......................................... 664
Lamiaceae ............................................... 666
Verbenaceae ............................................. 669
Bignoniaceae ............................................ 671
Acanthaceae ............................................. 673
Scrophulariaceae ........................................ 675
COLOUR FIGURES
Stems ...................................................... 85
Leaves ..................................................... 86
Inflorescences ............................................. 87
Fruits ..................................................... 88
Pteridophytes ........................................... 403
Selaginellaceae, Osmundaceae, Blechnaceae ............... 403
Gymnosperms
Cycadaceae, Zamiaceae ................................... 404
Ginkgoaceae, Pinaceae, Cupressaceae ..................... 405
Angiosperms ............................................... 457
Chloranthidae ........................................... 457
Magnoliidae ............................................. 458
Araceae, Alismataceae, Hydrocharitaceae, Liliaceae ...... 459
Iridaceae, Asphodelaceae, Alliaceae ................... 460
Hyacinthaceae, Agavaceae, Asparagaceae, Nolinaceae ...... 461
Arecaceae, Musaceae, Commelinaceae, Cyperceae,
Poaceae ................................................. 462
Paeoniaceae, Berberidaceae, Papaveraceae ................ 463
Ranunculaceae ........................................... 464
Grossulariaceae, Fagaceae, Nothofagaceae, Betulaceae .... 465
Portulacaceae, Cactaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Aizoaceae ...... 466
Chenpodiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Caryophyllaceae,
Polygonaceae ............................................ 467
Celastraceae, Violaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Begoniaceae ..... 468
Clusiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Oxalidaceae .................. 469
Geraniaceae, Rosaceae ................................... 470
Fabaceae ................................................ 471
Myrtaceae, Lythraceae, Onagraceae ....................... 472
Malvaceae, Rhamnaceae, Moraceae ......................... 615
Rafflesiaceae, Brassicaceae ............................. 676
Rutaceae, Anacardiaceae, Meliaceae ...................... 617
Sapindaceae ............................................. 618
Hydrangeaceae, Polemoniaceae, Cornaceae, Primulaceae .... 619
Ericaceae, Adoxaceae .................................... 620
Apiaceae, Araliaceae .................................... 621
Asteraceae .............................................. 622
Solanaceae, Convolvulaceae, Boraginaceae ................ 623
Rubiaceae, Apocynaceae .................................. 624
Plantaginaceae, Lamiaceae ............................... 625
Verbenaceae, Bignoniaceae, Acanthaceae,
Scrophulariaceae ........................................ 626
REFERENCES ................................................ 669-702
INDEX ..................................................... 703-742
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