 | Köhl M. Sampling methods, remote sensing and GIS multiresource forest inventory / M.Köhl, S.S.Magnussen, M.Marchetti. - Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2006. - xix, 373 p.: ill. (some col.). - (Tropical Forestry). - Ref.: p.327-366. - Ind.: p.367-373. - ISBN-10 3-540-32571-9; ISBN-13 978-3-540-32571-0; ISSN 1614-9785
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1 Forest Inventories - an Overview ............................. 1
1.1 Focus ................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives .............................................. 3
1.3 A Typology of Forest Inventories ........................ 9
1.4 Inventory Planning ..................................... 11
2 Forest Mensuration .......................................... 17
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 17
2.2 Area Information ....................................... 18
2.2.1 Forest Area Definitions ......................... 18
2.2.2 Assessment of Forest Area ....................... 22
2.3 Tree Information and Information for Characterizing
the Growing Stock ...................................... 24
2.3.1 Species Identification .......................... 24
2.3.2 Diameter at Breast Height and Upper-Stem
Diameters ....................................... 26
2.3.3 Cross-Sectional Area Measurement ................ 35
2.3.4 Height .......................................... 36
2.3.5 Bark Thickness .................................. 44
2.3.6 Tree Form ....................................... 45
2.3.7 Volume .......................................... 47
2.3.8 Weight and Wood Density ......................... 53
2.3.9 Biomass ......................................... 54
2.3.10 Quantification of Timber Quality ................ 58
2.3.11 Age ............................................. 61
2.3.12 Growth and Increment ............................ 62
2.3.13 Density ......................................... 69
3 Sampling in Forest Surveys .................................. 71
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 71
3.2 Basic Concepts ......................................... 71
3.2.1 Population, Samples, and Estimators ............. 71
3.2.2 Probability Sampling ............................ 74
3.2.3 Definitions and Notations ....................... 76
3.2.4 Properties of Estimators ........................ 78
3.3 Survey Design and Sampling Design ...................... 80
3.3.1 Simple Random Sampling .......................... 82
3.3.1.1 Estimating the Population Mean ......... 83
3.3.1.2 Sampling Error ......................... 83
3.3.1.3 Confidence Intervals for Sample
Estimates .............................. 85
3.3.1.4 Estimating the Population Total ........ 86
3.3.1.5 Determining Sample Size ................ 87
3.3.1.6 Sampling for Proportions and
Percentages ............................ 88
3.3.1.7 Ratio Estimators ....................... 91
3.3.1.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of SRS .... 91
3.3.2 Systematic Sampling ............................. 93
3.3.3 Cluster Sampling ................................ 97
3.3.3.1 Two-Stage Cluster Sampling ............ 100
3.3.3.2 Two-Stage Cluster Sampling for the
Estimation of Proportions ............. 104
3.3.3.3 Two-Stage Cluster Sampling with
Stratification of the Primary Units ... 104
3.3.4 Stratified Sampling ............................ 105
3.3.4.1 Sample Allocation ..................... 107
3.3.4.2 Estimation of Population Means and
Totals Under Stratified Sampling ...... 108
3.3.4.3 Estimation of Proportions Under
Stratified Random Sampling ............ 108
3.3.4.4 Design Effect ......................... 109
3.3.4.5 Poststratification .................... 110
3.3.4.6 Pros and Cons of Stratified
Sampling .............................. 1ll
3.3.5 Two-Phase Sampling ............................. 112
3.3.5.1 Two-Phase Sampling with Regression
Estimators ............................ 112
3.3.5.2 Two-Phase Sampling for
Stratification ........................ 116
3.3.6 Multiphase Sampling ............................ 118
3.4 Errors in Forest Surveys .............................. 120
3.4.1 Non-Sampling inventory errors .................. 122
3.4.1.1 Nonobservation ........................ 122
3.4.1.2 Measurement Errors .................... 123
3.4.1.3 Estimating Nonsampling Errors and
Bias .................................. 125
3.5 Selection of Trees on Sampling Units .................. 129
3.5.1 Tree Selection with Fixed-Area Sampling
Units .......................................... 130
3.5.2 Scaling of Individual Tree Data into Sample
Plot Values .................................... 133
3.5.3 Point Sampling ................................. 134
3.5.4 Point Sampling Versus Fixed-Area Plots ......... 140
3.5.5 Sampling at the Forest Edge .................... 141
3.6 Sampling on Successive Occasions ...................... 143
3.6.1 Continuous Forest Inventory .................... 144
3.6.2 Sampling with Partial Replacement of Sample
Plots .......................................... 147
3.6.3 Estimates for Subpopulations ................... 149
3.7 Sampling for Rare and Elusive Populations ............. 150
3.7.1 Adaptive Cluster Sampling ...................... 151
3.7.2 Sampling with Probability Proportional to
Size ........................................... 155
3.7.3 Line Transect Sampling ......................... 160
3.7.4 Capture-Recapture Sampling ..................... 166
3.7.5 Inverse Sampling ............................... 167
3.7.6 Double Sampling ................................ 168
3.7.7 Composite Sampling ............................. 170
3.8 Small-Area Estimation ................................. 173
3.8.1 Direct Small-Area Estimators ................... 174
3.8.2 Synthetic Small-Area Estimators ................ 175
3.8.3 Composite Small-Area Estimators ................ 176
3.8.4 Model-Based Small-Area Estimation .............. 177
3.8.5 Small-Area Estimation by Block Kriging ......... 182
3.8.6 Empirical Bayesian Methods for Small-Area
Estimation ..................................... 185
3.9 к Nearest-Neighbor Prediction ......................... 187
3.10 Resampling for Nonlinear Inventory Statistics ......... 191
3.10.1 The Bootstrap .................................. 192
3.10.2 The Jackknife Resampling ....................... 194
3.10.3 The Polya-Urn Resampling Scheme ................ 195
4 Remote Sensing ............................................. 197
4.1 Introduction .......................................... 197
4.2 Basic Concepts ........................................ 201
4.2.1 Electromagnetic Radiation ...................... 202
4.2.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum ................... 203
4.2.3 Interactions with the Atmosphere ............... 205
4.2.4 Radiation-Target Interactions .................. 207
4.2.5 Passive and Active Sensing ..................... 210
4.2.6 Characteristics and Analysis of Images ......... 211
4.2.6.1 Image Resolution ...................... 212
4.2.6.2 Image Processing ...................... 214
4.2.6.3 Visual Computer-Aided
Interpretation ........................ 220
4.3 The Instruments and Their Use ......................... 224
4.3.1 Coarse Spatial Resolution Sensors .............. 227
4.3.2 Medium and High Spatial Resolution Sensors ..... 227
4.3.3 Very High Spatial Resolution Sensors ........... 229
4.3.4 Hyperspectral Sensors .......................... 230
4.3.5 Microwave Sensors .............................. 230
4.3.6 Laser Sensors .................................. 233
4.4 Accuracy Requirements ................................. 234
4.4.1 Accuracy of Position and of Classification ..... 236
4.4.2 Testing the Accuracy of Borderlines ............ 237
5 Geographic and Forest Information Systems .................. 239
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 239
5.2 Geographic Information Systems ........................ 240
5.2.1 Spatial Data ................................... 241
5.2.2 Spatial Analyses ............................... 245
5.2.2.1 Single-Layer Operations ............... 246
5.2.2.2 Multilayer Operations ................. 251
5.2.3 Pattern Analysis ............................... 254
5.2.3.1 Statistical Measures .................. 254
5.2.3.2 Study of Spatial Arrangement .......... 255
5.2.3.3 Spatial Autocorrelation ............... 256
5.2.4 Network Analysis ............................... 257
5.2.5 Surface Analysis ............................... 258
5.2.5.1 Organization of Surface Information ... 259
5.2.5.2 Spatial Interpolation ................. 259
5.2.6 Grid Analysis .................................. 261
5.2.7 Geostatistical Methods ......................... 262
5.3 Forest Information Systems ............................ 269
5.4 Methodical Components of Information Systems .......... 273
6 Multiresource Forest Inventory ............................. 277
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 277
6.2 Forest Production ..................................... 278
6.2.1 From Tree Volume to Utilized Timber Volume ..... 278
6.2.2 Access Studies ................................. 280
6.3 Nonwood Goods and Services ............................ 282
6.3.1 Historical Perspective ......................... 282
6.3.2 Definition of Nonwood Goods and Services ....... 284
6.3.3 Classification Systems for Nonwood Goods and
Services ....................................... 286
6.3.3.1 National Nonwood Forest Product
Accounting ............................ 286
6.3.3.2 End Use and Plant Use
Classifications ....................... 287
6.3.3.3 Classification Based on Life Forms
and Plant Parts ....................... 288
6.3.3.4 Classification According to
Management Characteristics ............ 288
6.3.4 The Assessment of Nonwood Goods and Services ... 288
6.4 Forest Ecosystems and Biological Diversity2 ........... 293
6.4.1 Biodiversity Indicators ........................ 298
6.4.2 Assessment of the Forest Edge .................. 299
6.4.3 Sampling Diversity ............................. 300
6.4.4 Assessment of Rare Species by Adaptive
Cluster Sampling ............................... 302
6.4.5 Plant Density Estimation ....................... 302
6.4.6 Assessment of Deadwood by Transect Relaskop
Sampling and Guided Transect Sampling .......... 303
6.5 Landscape Analysis .................................... 304
6.5.1 The Theory of Windows .......................... 305
6.5.2 Trees Outside Forests .......................... 312
6.6 Forest Fires .......................................... 312
6.6.1 Assessment and Modeling of Wildfire Risks ...... 313
6.6.2 Detecting Fires and Emissions .................. 319
6.6.3 Mapping Burned Areas ........................... 321
6.6.4 Vegetation Indices and Forest Fires ............ 325
6.6.5 Indices for Danger Assessment .................. 325
References .................................................... 327
Index ......................................................... 367
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