Chapter 1. Introduction ........................................ 1
1.1. Background and purpose ................................ 1
1.2. History of ionospheric research ....................... 3
1.3. Specific references ................................... 8
1.4. General references .................................... 9
Chapter 2. Space environment .................................. 11
2.1. Sun .................................................. 11
2.2. Interplanetary medium ................................ 17
2.3. Earth ................................................ 22
2.4. Inner planets ........................................ 31
2.5. Outer planets ........................................ 37
2.6. Moons and comets ..................................... 39
2.7. Plasma and neutral parameters ........................ 43
2.8. Specific references .................................. 46
2.9. General references ................................... 48
Chapter 3. Transport equations ................................ 50
3.1. Boltzmann equation ................................... 50
3.2. Moments of the distribution function ................. 53
3.3. General transport equations .......................... 55
3.4. Maxwellian velocity distribution ..................... 58
3.5. Closing the system of transport equations ............ 60
3.6. 13-moment transport equations ........................ 62
3.7. Generalized transport systems ........................ 65
3.8. Kinetic, Monte Carlo, and particle-in-cell methods ... 66
3.9. Maxwell equations .................................... 67
3.10. Specific references .................................. 68
3.11. Problems ............................................. 69
Chapter 4. Collisions ......................................... 72
4.1. Simple collision parameters .......................... 73
4.2. Binary elastic collisions ............................ 74
4.3. Collision cross sections ............................. 80
4.4. Transfer collision integrals ......................... 85
4.5. Maxwell molecule collisions .......................... 89
4.6. Collision terms for Maxwellian velocity
distributions ........................................ 92
4.7. Collision terms for 13-moment velocity
distributions ........................................ 98
4.8. Momentum transfer collision frequencies ............. 102
4.9. Specific references ................................. 109
4.10. Problems ............................................ 110
Chapter 5. Simplified transport equations .................... 113
5.1. Basic transport properties .......................... 114
5.2. The five-moment approximation ....................... 119
5.3. Transport in a weakly ionized plasma ................ 120
5.4. Transport in partially and fully ionized plasmas .... 125
5.5. Major ion diffusion ................................. 126
5.6. Polarization electrostatic field .................... 128
5.7. Minor ion diffusion ................................. 130
5.8. Supersonic ion outflow .............................. 132
5.9. Time-dependent plasma expansion ..................... 135
5.10. Diffusion across В .................................. 137
5.11. Electrical conductivities ........................... 139
5.12. Electron stress and heat flow ....................... 143
5.13. Ion stress and heat flow ............................ 148
5.14. Higher-order diffusion processes .................... 149
5.15. Summary of appropriate use of transport equations ... 153
5.16. Specific references ................................. 155
5.17. General references .................................. 156
5.18. Problems ............................................ 156
Chapter 6. Wave phenomena .................................... 159
6.1. General wave properties ............................. 159
6.2. Plasma dynamics ..................................... 164
6.3. Electron plasma waves ............................... 168
6.4. Ion-acoustic waves .................................. 170
6.5. Upper hybrid oscillations ........................... 172
6.6. Lower hybrid oscillations ........................... 174
6.7. Ion-cyclotron waves ................................. 175
6.8. Electromagnetic waves in a plasma ................... 177
6.9. Ordinary and extraordinary waves .................... 179
6.10. L and R waves ....................................... 183
6.11. Alfvén and magnetosonic waves ....................... 185
6.12. Effect of collisions ................................ 186
6.13. Two-stream instability .............................. 188
6.14. Shockwaves .......................................... 191
6.15. Double layers ....................................... 196
6.16. Summary of important formulas ....................... 201
6.17. Specific references ................................. 203
6.18. General references .................................. 204
6.19. Problems ............................................ 204
Chapter 7. Magnetohydrodynamic formulation ................... 206
7.1. General MHD equations ............................... 206
7.2. Generalized Ohm's law ............................... 211
7.3. Simplified MHD equations ............................ 213
7.4. Pressure balance .................................... 214
7.5. Magnetic diffusion .................................. 216
7.6. Spiral magnetic field ............................... 217
7.7. Double-adiabatic energy equations ................... 219
7.8. Alfven and magnetosonic waves ....................... 221
7.9. Shocks and discontinuities .......................... 225
7.10. Specific references ................................. 228
7.11. General references .................................. 229
7.12. Problems ............................................ 229
Chapter 8. Chemical processes ................................ 231
8.1. Chemical kinetics ................................... 231
8.2. Reaction rates ...................................... 236
8.3. Charge exchange processes ........................... 240
8.4. Recombination reactions ............................. 243
8.5. Negative ion chemistry .............................. 245
8.6. Excited state chemistry ............................. 246
8.7. Optical emissions; airglow and aurora ............... 248
8.8. Specific references ................................. 250
8.9. General references .................................. 252
8.10. Problems ............................................ 252
Chapter 9. Ionization and energy exchange processes .......... 254
9.1. Absorption of solar radiation ....................... 254
9.2. Solar EUV intensities and absorption cross
sections ............................................ 258
9.3. Photoionization ..................................... 260
9.4. Superthermal electron transport ..................... 264
9.5. Superthermal ion and neutral particle transport ..... 270
9.6. Electron and ion heating rates ...................... 272
9.7. Electron and ion cooling rates ...................... 276
9.8. Specific references ................................. 284
9.9. General references .................................. 287
9.10. Problems ............................................ 287
Chapter 10. Neutral atmospheres ............................... 289
10.1. Rotating atmospheres ................................ 290
10.2. Euler equations ..................................... 291
10.3. Navier-Stokes equations ............................. 292
10.4. Atmospheric waves ................................... 294
10.5. Gravity waves ....................................... 295
10.6. Tides ............................................... 300
10.7. Density structure and controlling processes ......... 304
10.8. Escape of terrestrial hydrogen ...................... 311
10.9. Energetics and thermal structure of the
Earth's thermosphere ................................ 314
10.10.Exosphere ........................................... 321
10.11.Hot atoms ........................................... 325
10.12.Specific references ................................. 328
10.13.General references .................................. 331
10.14.Problems ............................................ 332
Chapter 11. The terrestrial ionosphere at middle and
low latitudes ..................................... 335
11.1. Dipole magnetic field ............................... 337
11.2. Geomagnetic field ................................... 341
11.3. Geomagnetic variations .............................. 344
11.4. Ionospheric layers .................................. 346
11.5. Topside ionosphere and plasmasphere ................. 356
11.6. Plasma thermal structure ............................ 360
11.7. Diurnal variation at mid-latitudes .................. 365
11.8. Seasonal variation at mid-latitudes ................. 367
11.9. Solar cycle variation at mid-latitudes .............. 368
11.10.Plasma transport in a dipole magnetic field ......... 369
11.11.Equatorial F region ................................. 371
11.12.Equatorial spread F and bubbles ..................... 373
11.13.Sporadic E and intermediate layers .................. 379
11.14.F3 layer and He+ layer ............................... 381
11.15.Tides and gravity waves ............................. 381
11.16.Ionospheric storms .................................. 386
11.17.Specific references ................................. 391
11.18.General references .................................. 395
11.19.Problems ............................................ 396
Chapter 12. The terrestrial ionosphere at high latitudes ...... 398
12.1. Convection electric fields .......................... 399
12.2. Convection models ................................... 405
12.3. Effects of convection ............................... 410
12.4. Particle precipitation .............................. 419
12.5. Current systems ..................................... 423
12.6. Large-scale ionospheric features .................... 425
12.7. Propagating plasma patches .......................... 430
12.8. Boundary and auroral blobs .......................... 432
12.9. Sun-aligned arcs .................................... 434
12.10.Cusp neutral fountain ............................... 434
12.11.Neutral density structures .......................... 437
12.12.Neutral response to convection channels ............. 438
12.13.Supersonic neutral winds ............................ 443
12.14.Geomagnetic storms .................................. 445
12.15.Substorms ........................................... 448
12.16.Polar wind .......................................... 450
12.17.Energetic ion outflow ............................... 465
12.18.Neutral polar wind .................................. 470
12.19.Specific references ................................. 472
12.20.General references .................................. 479
12.21.Problems ............................................ 480
Chapter 13. Planetary ionospheres ............................. 482
13.1. Mercury ............................................. 482
13.2. Venus ............................................... 482
13.3. Mars ................................................ 492
13.4. Jupiter ............................................. 496
13.5. Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto .................. 498
13.6. Satellites and comets ............................... 502
13.7. Specific references ................................. 509
13.8. General references .................................. 514
13.9. Problems ............................................ 515
Chapter 14. Ionospheric measurement techniques ................ 517
14.1. Spacecraft potential ................................ 517
14.2. Langmuir probes ..................................... 519
14.3. Retarding potential analyzers ....................... 522
14.4. Thermal ion mass spectrometers ...................... 525
14.5. Magnetometers ....................................... 529
14.6. Radio reflection .................................... 532
14.7. Radio occultation ................................... 534
14.8. Incoherent (Thomson) radar backscatter .............. 538
14.9. Specific references ................................. 544
14.10.General references .................................. 546
Appendix A. Physical constants and conversions ................ 548
A.1. Physical constants ....................................... 548
A.2. Conversions .............................................. 548
Appendix В. Vector relations and operators .................... 550
B.l. Vector relations ......................................... 550
B.2. Vector operators ......................................... 551
B.3. Specific references ...................................... 553
Appendix С. Integrals and transformations ..................... 554
C.l. Integral relations ....................................... 554
C.2. Important integrals ...................................... 555
C.3. Integral transformations ................................. 556
Appendix D. Functions and series expansions ................... 558
D.l. Important functions ...................................... 558
D.2. Series expansions for small arguments .................... 559
Appendix E. Systems of units .................................. 560
Appendix F. Maxwell transfer equations ........................ 562
Appendix G. Collision models .................................. 567
G.1. Boltzmann collision integral ............................. 567
G.2. Fokker-Planck collision term ............................. 571
G.3. Charge exchange collision integral ....................... 572
G.4. Krook collision models ................................... 572
G.5. Specific references ...................................... 574
Appendix H. Maxwell velocity distribution ..................... 575
H.l. Specific reference ....................................... 580
Appendix I. Semilinear expressions for transport
coefficients ...................................... 581
I.1. Diffusion coefficients and thermal conductivities ........ 581
I.2. Fully ionized plasma ..................................... 582
I.3. Partially ionized plasma ................................. 583
I.4. Specific references ...................................... 583
Appendix J. Solar fluxes and relevant cross sections .......... 584
J.1. Specific references ...................................... 593
Appendix К. Atmospheric models ................................ 594
K.1. Introduction ............................................. 594
K.2. Specific references ...................................... 599
Appendix L. Scalars, vectors, dyadics, and tensors ............ 600
Appendix M. Radio wave spectrum ............................... 605
Appendix N. Simple derivation of continuity equation .......... 606
Appendix O. Numerical solution for F region ionization ........ 608
O.1. Specific reference ....................................... 613
Appendix P. Monte Carlo methods ............................... 614
P.1. Specific references ...................................... 617
Index ......................................................... 618
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