Preface ........................................................ XV
List of Contributors .......................................... XIX
1 Polymer Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Microstructure,
and Properties ............................................... 1
Vikas Mittal
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.2 Means of Synthesis and Microstructure ................... 3
1.3 Importance of Thermogravimetric Analysis and X-Ray
Diffraction for Filler and Nanocomposite
Microstructure Characterization ......................... 6
1.4 Polar and Nonpolar Polymer Systems ...................... 9
1.5 Advances in Filler Surface Modifications ............... 14
1.6 Prediction of Composite Properties ..................... 15
References .................................................. 17
2 Morphology Development in Thermoset Nanocomposites .......... 21
Peter J. Halley
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 21
2.2 Epoxy Nanocomposite Systems ............................ 22
2.3 Effects of Processing and Aging ........................ 27
2.4 Other Thermoset Nanocomposite Systems .................. 30
2.5 Recent Advances in Thermoset Nanocomposites ............ 33
2.5.1 Epoxy-HBP Nanostructured Systems ................ 33
2.5.2 Ternary Nanostructured Systems and Multiscale
Composites ...................................... 34
2.5.3 Novel Characterization Methods .................. 36
2.5.4 Modeling Thermoset Nanocomposite Systems ........ 36
2.6 Summary ................................................ 38
References .................................................. 38
3 Morphology and Interface Development in Rubber-Clay
Nanocomposites .............................................. 41
Yong-Lai Lu and Li-Qun Zhang
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 41
3.2 Melt Compounding ....................................... 42
3.2.1 Mechanism and Influencing Factors ............... 42
3.2.1.1 The Organic Modification ............... 43
3.2.1.2 The Features of Rubber and
Compatibilizers or Coupling Agents ..... 44
3.2.1.3 Melt-Compounding Conditions ............ 44
3.2.2 Evolution of Morphology and Interface during
Vulcanization of RCNs ........................... 44
3.2.2.1 Changes in the Local Microstructure
of Clay Particles ...................... 44
3.2.2.2 Change in the Spatial Distribution of
Clay Particles ......................... 45
3.3 Latex Compounding ...................................... 57
3.3.1 Mechanism and Influencing Factors ............... 57
3.3.2 Interface Enhancement ........................... 60
References .................................................. 65
4 Morphology Development in Polyolefin Nanocomposites ......... 67
Mitsuyoshi Fujiyama
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 67
4.2 Intercalation, Exfoliation, and Dispersion of MMT ...... 68
4.2.1 Manufacturing Processes ......................... 68
4.2.2 Dispersion (Exfoliation) State of Nanoclays ..... 69
4.2.3 Exfoliation Process of Nanoclays ................ 72
4.2.4 Control of Exfoliation/Dispersion of
Nanoclays ....................................... 75
4.2.4.1 Raw Materials .......................... 75
4.2.4.2 Mixing Methods ......................... 78
4.2.4.3 Mixing Conditions ...................... 82
4.2.5 Morphology of Base Polymers ..................... 82
4.3 Crystallization and Crystalline Structure of Matrix
Polymers ............................................... 83
4.3.1 Crystallization ................................. 83
4.3.1.1 Quiescent Crystallization .............. 83
4.3.1.2 Flow-Induced Crystallization ........... 84
4.3.2 Crystalline Structure ........................... 84
4.3.2.1 Quiescent Crystallization .............. 84
4.3.2.2 Flow-Induced Crystallization ........... 86
4.4 Morphology Development in Processing ................... 86
4.4.1 Injection Molding ............................... 87
4.4.1.1 Conventional Injection Molding ......... 87
4.4.1.2 Dynamic Packing Injection Molding ...... 88
4.4.2 Sheet Extrusion ................................. 89
4.4.3 Film Extrusion Casting .......................... 90
4.5 Conclusions ............................................ 90
References .................................................. 91
5 Rheological Behavior of Polymer Nanocomposites .............. 93
Mo Song and Jie Jin
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 93
5.2 Rheological Behavior of Polymer Nanocomposites in
Solution State ......................................... 95
5.3 Rheological Behavior of Polymer Nanocomposites in
Melt State ............................................ 107
5.4 Conclusions ........................................... 118
References ................................................. 119
6 Mechanical Property Enhancement of Polymer
Nanocomposites ............................................. 123
Nourredine Aït Hocine
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 123
6.2 Material Stiffness .................................... 124
6.2.1 Experimental Investigations .................... 124
6.2.2 Analytical Modeling ............................ 125
6.3 Ultimate Mechanical Properties ........................ 129
6.3.1 Experimental Investigations .................... 129
6.3.2 Analytical Modeling ............................ 131
6.3.2.1 Yield Stress .......................... 131
6.3.2.2 Properties at Break ................... 132
6.4 Conclusions ........................................... 135
References ................................................. 136
7 Stress Transfer and Fracture Mechanisms in Carbon
Nanotube-Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites ................. 139
Bhabani K. Satapathy, Martin Ganß, Petra Potschke, and
Roland Weidisch
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 139
7.2 Experimental Studies .................................. 142
7.2.1 Fabrication of Composites ...................... 142
7.2.2 Morphology Characterization .................... 142
7.2.2.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy
(ТЕМ) ................................. 142
7.2.2.2 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) ......... 143
7.2.2.3 2-D Wide-Angle X-Ray Diffraction ...... 143
7.2.3 Thermal Characterization ....................... 143
7.2.3.1 Differential Scanning Calorimetry ..... 143
7.2.3.2 Dynamical Mechanical Analysis ......... 143
7.2.3.3 Melt Rheological Investigations ....... 144
7.2.4 Mechanical and Fracture Mechanical
Investigations ................................. 144
7.2.4.1 Tensile Testing ....................... 144
7.2.4.2 Essential-Work-of-Fracture Approach ... 144
7.2.4.3 Kinetics of Crack Propagation
Measurement Using a Single-Specimen
Technique ............................. 145
7.3 Mechanical Behavior of Polymer Nanocomposites and
Stress Transfer ....................................... 145
7.3.1 Amorphous Thermoplastic ........................ 145
7.3.2 Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastic ................. 149
7.4 Fracture Mechanics of CNT-Polymer Nanocomposites ...... 156
7.4.1 Amorphous Thermoplastic ........................ 156
7.4.2 Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastic ................. 162
7.5 Concluding Remarks .................................... 168
Acknowledgments ............................................ 169
References ................................................. 169
8 Barrier Resistance Generation in Polymer Nanocomposites .... 173
Vikas Mittal
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 173
8.2 Theory of Permeation .................................. 174
8.3 Barrier Generation in Polar Nanocomposites ............ 176
8.4 Barrier Generation in Nonpolar Nanocomposites ......... 183
8.5 Modeling of Barrier Properties of Composites .......... 189
References ................................................. 192
9 Mechanisms of Thermal Stability Enhancement in
Polymer Nanocomposites ..................................... 195
Krzysztof Pielichowski, Agnieszka Leszczyńska, and James
Njuguna
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 195
9.2 The Mechanisms of Thermal Stability Improvement
by Different Nanofillers .............................. 196
9.2.1 Clay Minerals .................................. 196
9.2.1.1 Barrier Effect ........................ 196
9.2.1.2 Restricted Thermal Motions ............ 198
9.2.1.3 Char Forming and Catalytic Effects .... 198
9.2.1.4 Radical Trapping and Sorption
Mechanisms ............................ 201
9.2.2 Carbonaceous Nanofillers ....................... 202
9.2.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes and Carbon
Nanofibers ............................ 202
9.2.2.2 Carbon Black .......................... 205
9.2.2.3 Fullerenes ............................ 205
9.2.2.4 Graphite .............................. 205
9.2.3 Silica-Based Nanofillers ....................... 205
9.2.3.1 Silica Oxide .......................... 205
9.2.3.2 Polyhedral Oligomeric
Silsesquioxane ........................ 206
9.2.4 Metals and Metal Oxides ........................ 206
9.2.5 Other Fillers .................................. 207
9.3 Concluding Remarks .................................... 207
References ................................................. 208
10 Mechanisms of Tribological Performance Improvement in
Polymer Nanocomposites ..................................... 211
Ga Zhang and Alois K. Schlarb
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 211
10.2 Nanoparticle Reinforcements ........................... 213
10.2.1 Improvement of Wear Performance by Using
Nanopartides ................................... 214
10.2.2 Roles of Nanopartides on Transfer Film
Formation ...................................... 214
10.2.3 Structure-Tribological Property
Relationships .................................. 215
10.2.3.1 Effect of Grafting Treatment of
Nanopartides on Tribological
Improvement of Epoxy Nanocomposites ... 217
10.2.3.2 Role of Nano-Si02 Particles on the
Mechanical and Tribological
Behaviors of PEEK ..................... 218
10.3 Carbon Nanotubes ...................................... 223
10.4 Synthetic Roles of Nanopartides with Traditional
Fillers ............................................... 226
10.4.1 Tribological Behavior of Traditional and
Nanofillers (or Sub-Micro)-Filled Epoxy ........ 226
10.4.2 Roles of Nanopartides on the Tribological
Behavior of SCF/PTFE/Graphite-Filled PEEK ...... 227
References ................................................. 233
11 Mechanisms of Biodegradability Generation in Polymer
Nanocomposites ............................................. 235
Mitsuhiro Shibata
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 235
11.2 PBAT Nanocomposites ................................... 237
11.2.1 Preparation and Morphology of PBAT
Nanocomposites ................................. 237
11.2.2 Mechanical Properties of PBAT Nanocomposites ... 241
11.2.3 Thermal Properties of PBAT Nanocomposites ...... 243
11.2.4 Biodegradability of PBAT Nanocomposites ........ 244
11.3 PBS Nanocomposites .................................... 245
11.3.1 Preparation and Morphology of PBS
Nanocomposites ................................. 245
11.3.2 Mechanical Properties of PBS Nanocomposites .... 248
11.3.3 Thermal Properties of PBS Nanocomposites ....... 252
11.3.4 Biodegradability of PBS Nanocomposites ......... 253
11.4 Conclusions ........................................... 256
References ................................................. 258
12 Self-Healing in Nanoparticle-Reinforced Polymers and
other Polymer Systems ...................................... 261
Stephen J. Picken, Steven D. Mookhoek, Hartmut
R. Fischer, and Sybrand van der Zwaag
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 261
12.2 Microstructured Self-Healing Polymer Structures ....... 264
12.2.1 Liquid-Based Self-Healing Thermosetting
Polymers ....................................... 264
12.2.2 Liquid-Based Self-Healing Thermoplastic
Polymers ....................................... 265
12.2.3 Geometric Aspects in Encapsulation ............. 265
12.3 Nanoparticle-Reinforced Self-Healing Polymer
Systems ............................................... 270
12.3.1 Modeling the Modulus of Nanoparticle-Filled
Polymers ....................................... 270
12.3.2 Experimental Validation for Non-Self-Healing
Systems ........................................ 273
12.3.3 Design of a Self-Healing Nanoparticle
Composite ...................................... 274
12.4 Concluding Remarks .................................... 277
Acknowledgments ............................................ 277
References ................................................. 277
13 Crystallization in Polymer Nanocomposites .................. 279
Jyoti Jog
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 279
13.2 Nanofillers ........................................... 280
13.2.1 Silicates ...................................... 280
13.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes ............................... 281
13.2.3 Exfoliated Graphite ............................ 281
13.2.4 Other Nanoparticles ............................ 282
13.3 Isothermal and Nonisothermal Crystallization in
Polymers .............................................. 282
13.3.1 Polypropylene (PP) ............................. 283
13.3.1.1 Crystallization ....................... 283
13.3.1.2 Polymorphism in PP .................... 285
13.3.2 Poly-1-Butene (PB) ............................. 285
13.3.3 Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT) ............... 286
13.3.4 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) ............... 287
13.3.5 Poly Trimethylene Terephthalate (PTT) .......... 288
13.3.6 Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN) ................. 288
13.3.6.1 Crystallization ....................... 288
13.3.6.2 Polymorphism in PEN ................... 289
13.3.7 Polylactic Acid (PLLA) ......................... 289
13.3.8 Polyhydroxy Alkonate (PHA) ..................... 290
13.3.9 Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK) .................. 290
13.3.10 Nylon 6 ....................................... 291
13.3.10.1 Crystallization ...................... 291
13.3.10.2 Polymorphism in Nylon 6 .............. 292
13.3.11 Nylon 66 ...................................... 293
13.3.11.1 Crystallization ...................... 293
13.3.11.2 Polymorphism in Nylon 66 ............. 293
13.3.12 Nylon 11 ...................................... 293
13.3.13 Nylon 10,10 ................................... 294
13.3.14 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) ................ 294
13.3.14.1 Crystallization ...................... 294
13.3.14.2 Polymorphism in PVDF ................. 294
13.3.15 Syndiotactic Polystyrene (sPS) ................ 295
13.3.15.1 Crystallization ...................... 295
13.3.15.2 Polymorphism in sPS .................. 296
13.4 Conclusions ........................................... 296
References ................................................. 297
14 Prediction of the Mechanical Properties of
Nanocomposites ............................................. 301
Qinghua Zeng and Aibing Yu
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 301
14.1.1 Nanocomposites ................................. 301
14.1.2 Some Issues in Nanocomposites .................. 301
14.1.2.1 Dispersion of Nanoparticles ........... 301
14.1.2.2 Interface ............................. 303
14.1.2.3 Crystallization ....................... 303
14.1.3 Property Predictions ................................ 304
14.2 Analytical and Numerical Techniques ................... 305
14.2.1 Analytical Models ................................... 305
14.2.1.1 Rule of Mixtures ...................... 305
14.2.1.2 Halpin-Tsai Model ..................... 306
14.2.1.3 Mori-Tanaka Model ..................... 306
14.2.1.4 Equivalent-Continuum Approach ......... 307
14.2.1.5 Self-Similar Approach ................. 307
14.2.2 Numerical Methods ................................... 307
14.2.2.1 Molecular Dynamics .................... 308
14.2.2.2 Monte Carlo ........................... 309
14.2.2.3 Brownian Dynamics ..................... 309
14.2.2.4 Dissipative Particle Dynamics ......... 310
14.2.2.5 Lattice Boltzmann ..................... 310
14.2.2.6 Time-Dependent Ginzburg-Landau
Method ................................ 311
14.2.2.7 Dynamic Density Functional Theory ..... 311
14.2.2.8 Finite Element Method ................. 312
14.2.2.9 Boundary Element Method ............... 312
14.2.3 Multiscale Modeling ............................ 313
14.2.3.1 Challenges ............................ 313
14.2.3.2 Sequential and Concurrent
Approaches ............................ 313
14.2.3.3 Applications in Polymer
Nanocomposites ........................ 314
14.3 Prediction of Nanocomposite Properties ................ 314
14.3.1 Mechanical Properties .......................... 316
14.3.1.1 Stiffness and Strength ................ 316
14.3.1.2 Stress Transfer ....................... 320
14.3.1.3 Mechanical Reinforcement .............. 321
14.3.1.4 Interfacial Bonding ................... 323
14.3.1.5 Viscoelasticity ....................... 323
14.3.2 Mechanical Failure ............................. 324
14.3.2.1 Buckling .............................. 324
14.3.2.2 Fatigue ............................... 325
14.3.2.3 Fracture .............................. 325
14.3.2.4 Wear .................................. 326
14.3.2.5 Creep ................................. 327
14.4 Conclusions ........................................... 327
Acknowledgments ............................................ 328
References ................................................. 329
15 Morphology Generation in Polymer Nanocomposites Using
Various Layered Silicates .................................. 333
Kenji Tamura and Hirohisa Yamada
15.1 Introduction .......................................... 333
15.2 Aspects of Layered Silicates .......................... 334
15.2.1 General Structure .............................. 334
15.2.2 Various Types of Layered Silicates ............. 335
15.3 Conventional Layered Silicate Polymer Nanocomposites
using Smectite and Expandable Synthetic Fluoro-Mica ... 338
15.3.1 Relationship Between Morphology and
Properties ..................................... 338
15.3.2 Properties of Conventional Layered Silicate/
Polymer Nanocomposites ......................... 339
15.4 Aspect Ratio Variation Using Various Layered
Silicates ............................................. 344
15.4.1 Exfoliation of High Crystallinity
Nonexpandable Mica ............................. 344
15.4.2 Controlling the Number of Nanolayers (in
the Dispersed Platelets): Inter stratified
Layered Silicate/Polymer Nanocomposites ........ 347
15.5 Summary ............................................... 348
References ................................................. 349
16 Thermomechanical Properties of Nanocomposites .............. 351
Lucia Helena Innocentini-Mei
16.1 Introduction .......................................... 351
16.2 Thermomechanical Analysis ............................. 352
16.3 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis and the Principle of
Time-Temperature Superposition ........................ 354
16.4 Nanoclays and Their Influence on the
Thermomechanical Properties of Polymer Composites:
Some Case Studies ..................................... 355
16.5 Conclusions ........................................... 366
References ................................................. 367
17 Effect of Processing Conditions on the Morphology and
Properties of Polymer Nanocomposites ....................... 369
Michele Modesti, Stefano Besco, and Alessandra Lorenzetti
17.1 Introduction .......................................... 369
17.2 Melt-Intercalation of Polymer Nanocomposite Systems ... 370
17.2.1 Melt Intercalation of Polymer/Clay Systems ..... 370
17.2.1.1 Effects of Temperature, Shear, and
Residence Time ........................ 370
17.2.1.2 Effects of Extruder Configuration
and Screw Profiles .................... 374
17.2.1.3 Effect of Processing Route ............ 377
17.2.2 Melt-Intercalation of Polymer/CNT Systems ...... 378
17.3 Solution-Intercalation of Polymer Nanocomposites ...... 380
17.4 Progress in Polymer Nanocomposites Processing ......... 385
17.4.1 Water Injection-Assisted Melt-Compounding ...... 385
17.4.2 Supercritical CO2 -Assisted Melt-Compounding ... 388
17.4.3 Ultrasound-Assisted Melt-Compounding ........... 391
17.5 Processing of Thermoset Nanocomposites ................ 394
17.6 Conclusions ........................................... 399
References ................................................. 400
Index ......................................................... 407
|
