Preface ....................................................... XIX
Acknowledgments ............................................... XXI
Abbreviations ............................................... XXIII
1. Salient Features of Explosives ............................... 1
1.1. Introduction ........................................... 1
1.2. Definition ............................................. 2
1.2.1. Evolution of Heat .............................. 3
1.2.2. Rapidity of Reaction ........................... 3
1.3. Classification ......................................... 4
1.3.1. Military Explosives ............................ 6
1.3.1.1. Detonating or High Explosives ........ 6
1.3.1.2. Deflagrating or Low Explosives ....... 7
1.3.1.3. Pyrotechnics ......................... 9
1.3.2. Civil Explosives ............................... 9
1.3.2.1. Permitted or Permissible
Explosives ........................... 9
1.3.2.2. Non-permitted Explosives ............ 11
1.4. Fundamental Features .................................. 14
1.4.1. Compatibility and Stability ................... 14
1.4.2. Oxygen Balance (OB) ........................... 17
1.4.3. Sensitivity and Sensitiveness ................. 19
1.4.3.1. Sensitivity to Impact ............... 20
1.4.3.2. Sensitivity to Friction ............. 20
1.4.3.3. Sensitivity to Shock ................ 20
1.4.3.4. Sensitivity to Spark ................ 20
1.4.3.5. Sensitivity to Heat ................. 20
1.4.4. Heat of Formation ............................. 24
1.4.5. Heat of Explosion and Gaseous Products ........ 27
1.4.6. Velocity of Detonation (VOD) .................. 30
1.4.7. Detonation Pressure (DP or Pcj) ............... 31
1.4.8. Explosive Power or Strength ................... 32
1.4.9. Brisance ...................................... 32
1.5. Additional Requirements for Military Explosives ....... 33
1.5.1. Volatility .................................... 34
1.5.2. Toxicity ...................................... 34
1.5.3. Hygroscopicity ................................ 34
1.5.4. Density ....................................... 35
1.5.5. Life .......................................... 35
1.5.6. Availability, Cost and Demilitarization
or Recycling .................................. 35
1.5.7. Eco-friendliness .............................. 36
1.6. Applications of Explosives ............................ 37
1.6.1. Military Applications ......................... 38
1.6.1.1. Shells .............................. 39
1.6.1.2. Bombs ............................... 40
1.6.1.3. Grenades ............................ 40
1.6.1.4. Torpedoes ........................... 40
1.6.1.5. Shaped Charges ...................... 41
1.6.1.6. Warheads ............................ 41
1.6.2. Commercial Applications ....................... 43
1.6.2.1. Coal Mining ......................... 43
1.6.2.2. Tunneling ........................... 44
1.6.2.3. Quarrying ........................... 44
1.6.2.4. Other Mining ........................ 45
1.6.3. Military Explosives and Devices for
Commercial Applications ....................... 45
1.6.3.1. Detonators .......................... 45
1.6.3.2. Pilot Seat Ejection System ........... 45
1.6.3.3. High Altitude Fuel .................. 46
1.6.3.4. Air Re-generating Composition ....... 46
1.6.3.5. Metal Cladding and Welding .......... 47
1.6.3.6. Metal Working ....................... 48
1.6.3.7. Explosive Forming ................... 48
1.6.3.8. Explosive Cutting ................... 49
1.6.4. Space Applications ............................ 49
1.6.4.1. Solid and Liquid Rockets for Space
Applications ........................ 49
1.6.4.2. Various Indian Satellite Launch
Vehicles ............................ 51
1.6.4.3. Explosives, Propellants (Oxidizers,
Binders and Plasticizers) and
Pyrotechnics for Satellite Launch
Vehicles ............................ 52
1.6.5. Nuclear Applications .......................... 54
1.6.5.1. Types of Nuclear Weapons ............ 54
1.6.5.2. Assembly ............................ 55
1.6.5.3. Fissile Materials and Explosive
Lenses .............................. 56
1.6.5.4. Explosives and Binders for Nuclear
Weapons ............................. 58
1.6.6. Miscellaneous Applications .................... 58
1.6.6.1. Agriculture ......................... 58
1.6.6.2. Medical Industry .................... 61
1.6.6.3. Food Industry ....................... 61
1.6.6.4. Civil Engineering ................... 62
1.6.6.5. Automobile Industry ................. 62
1.6.6.6. Oil and Gas Industry ................ 62
References .................................................. 63
2. Status of Explosives ........................................ 69
2.1. Historical Aspects .................................... 69
2.2. Status of Current and Future Explosives ............... 70
2.2.1. Black Powder .................................. 71
2.2.2. Trinitrotoluene ............................... 71
2.2.3. Tetryl ........................................ 72
2.2.4. Nitroglycerine ................................ 72
2.2.5. Dynamite ...................................... 73
2.2.6. Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate .................. 73
2.2.7. Nitrocellulose ................................ 74
2.2.8. Polyvinyl Nitrate ............................. 75
2.2.9. Mercury Fulminate ............................. 76
2.2.10. Lead Azide .................................... 76
2.2.11. Picric Acid, Lead Picrate and
Ammonium Picrate .............................. 78
2.2.12. Lead Styphnate (Lead-2,4,6-
trinitroresorcinate) .......................... 79
2.2.13. Diazodinitropheno ............................. 79
2.2.14. Tetrazene ..................................... 80
2.2.15. Mercuric-5-nitrotetrazole ..................... 81
2.2.16. Research Department Explosive ................. 81
2.2.17. High Melting Explosive (or Her Majesty's
Explosive) .................................... 82
2.2.18. 'Heat-Resistant' or 'Thermally Stable'
Explosives .................................... 83
2.2.18.1. General Approaches for the
Synthesis of TATB, HNS,PATO etc. .... 84
Salt Formation ...................... 84
Introduction of Amino Groups ........ 84
Introduction of Conjugation ......... 89
Condensation with Triazole Ring/s ... 91
2.2.18.2. 3,3'-Diamino-2,2',4,4',6,6'-
exanitrodiphenyl .................... 93
2.2.18.3. N2,N4,N6-Tripicrylmelamine or
2,4,6-Tris(picrylamino)-l,3,5-
triazine Series of Explosives ....... 93
2.2.18.4. Tetranitrodibenzo-l,3a,4,4a-
tetraazapentalene ................... 95
2.2.18.5. 2,6-Bis(picrylamino)-3,5-
dinitropyridine ..................... 95
2.2.18.6. 2,5-Dipicryl-l,3,4-oxadiazole ....... 96
2.2.18.7. 2,2',2",4,4',4",6,6',6"-
Nonanitroterphenyl .................. 96
2.2.18.8. 3,5-Diamino-2,6-dinitropyridine-
N-oxide ............................. 97
2.2.18.9. N,N'-Bis(l,2,4-triazol-3-yl)-
4,4'-diamino-2,2',3,3',5,5',6,6'-
octanitroazobenzene 97
2.2.19. High Performance (High Density and High
VOD)Explosives ............................... 99
2.2.19.1. General Synthetic Approaches for
High Performance Explosives
(HNIW/CL-20 etc.) .................. 100
Replacement of the Nitro Group by
Furoxano Group ..................... 100
Introduction of SF5 Groups into
Nitro Compounds .................... 102
Strained and Cage Compounds ........ 103
2.2.19.2. 1,3,4,6-Tetranitroglycoluril ....... 106
2.2.19.3. Tetranitropropanediurea ............ 106
2.2.19.4. 1,3,5,5-Tetranitrohexahydropyri-
midine ............................. 107
2.2.20. Melt-Castable Explosives ..................... 108
2.2.20.1. Tris-X and Methyl Tris-X ........... 108
2.2.20.2. 1,3,3-Trinitroazetidine ............ 109
2.2.20.3. 4,4'-Dinitro-3,3'-bifurazan ........ 110
2.2.21. Insensitive High Explosives .................. 110
2.2.21.1. Oxynitrotriazole or
Nitrotriazolone .................... 112
2.2.21.2. Dinitroglycoluril .................. 113
2.2.21.3. Aminonitrotriazole ................. 114
2.2.21.4. Trans-l,4,5,8-tetranitro-l,4,5,8-
tetraazadecalin .................... 114
2.2.22. Energetic Binders and Plasticizers ........... 115
2.2.22.1. Energetic Binders .................. 115
2.2.22.2. Energetic Plasticizers ............. 117
2.2.23. Energetic Materials Synthesized Using
Dinitrogen Pentoxide ........................... 1
2.2.24. Newly Reported Explosives .................... 118
2.2.25. Important Formulations Based on TATB, CL-20
and NTO ...................................... 120
2.2.25.1. TATB-based Formulations ............ 120
2.2.25.2. CL-20-based Formulations ........... 122
2.2.25.3. NTO-based Formulations ............. 124
2.2.26. Insensitive Munitions and Some New
Insensitive Explosives/Formulations .......... 125
2.2.26.1. ROWANEX Class of PBXs .............. 126
2.2.26.2. SNPE's PBXs ........................ 127
2.2.26.3. FOI's Explosives ................... 129
FOX-7 .............................. 129
FOX-12 ............................. 130
2.2.26.4. American Formulations .............. 130
2.2.27. Basic Lead Azide ............................. 131
2.2.28. Hexakis(azidomethyl) Benzene ................. 134
2.2.29. Tetraamine-cis-bis(5-nitro-2H-Tetrazolato-
N2) Cobalt (III) Perchlorate ................. 134
2.2.30. Octanitrocubane .............................. 137
2.2.31. Nickel Hydrazine Nitrate ..................... 139
2.2.32. Furazan-, Furoxan- and Tetrazine-Based
Explosives ................................... 140
2.2.33. High Nitrogen Content-High Energy
Materials .................................... 141
2.2.34. Fuel-Air Explosives .......................... 144
2.3. Future Scope for Research ............................ 147
2.3.1. High Performance, Thermally Stable and
Insensitive Explosives
2.3.2. Melt-Castable Explosives ..................... 148
2.3.3. Energetic Binders and Plasticizers ........... 148
2.3.4. Particle Size of Explosives .................. 148
2.3.5. Eco-Friendly Production Processes and
Explosives 149
References ................................................. 150
3. Processing and Assessment Techniques for Explosives ........ 163
3.1. Processing Techniques for Explosives ................. 163
3.1.1. Casting ...................................... 164
3.1.1.1. Melt-casting ....................... 164
3.1.1.2. Normal Casting ..................... 165
3.1.1.3. Vibration or Sedimentation
Casting ............................ 166
3.1.1.4. Squeeze or Pressure Casting ........ 166
3.1.2. Extrusion .................................... 166
3.1.3. Pressing ..................................... 166
3.1.3.1. Unidirectional Pressing ............ 167
3.1.3.2. Double Action Pressing ............. 167
3.1.3.3. Incremental Pressing ............... 167
3.1.3.4. Hydrostatic Pressing ............... 168
3.1.3.5. Isostatic Pressing ................. 168
3.2. Formulation Fundamentals ............................. 170
3.2.1. Current Formulations ......................... 170
3.2.2. Aluminized Explosive Formulations ............ 171
3.2.3. Sheet Explosives ............................. 171
3.2.4. Plastic Bonded Explosives .................... 173
3.3. Assessment of Explosives ............................. 175
3.3.1. Determination of Compatibility and
Stability of Explosives ...................... 176
3.3.1.1. Vacuum Stability Test .............. 177
3.3.1.2. Heat Test .......................... 179
3.3.1.3. Impact Sensitivity Test ............ 179
3.3.2. Sensitivity of Explosives to Heat, Impact,
Friction, Spark and Shock .................... 180
3.3.2.1. Determination of Heat
Sensitivity ........................ 180
Explosion Delay .................... 180
Explosion Temperature .............. 181
Activation Energy .................. 182
Thermal Analysis ................... 183
3.3.2.2. Determination of Impact
Sensitivity ........................ 188
3.3.2.3. Determination of Friction
Sensitivity ........................ 195
3.3.2.4. Determination of Electric Spark
Sensitivity ........................ 197
3.3.2.5. Determination of Shock
Sensitivity ........................ 197
3.3.3. Determination of Detonation Velocity ......... 198
3.3.3.1. Pin Oscillographic Technique ....... 198
3.3.3.2. Dautriche Method .................... 202
3.3.4. Determination of Detonation Pressure ......... 203
3.3.5. Determination of Strength .................... 204
References ................................................. 205
4. Propellents ................................................ 209
4.1 Classification of Propellants ........................ 209
4.2. Liquid Propellants ................................... 209
4.3. Solid Propellants .................................... 213
4.3.1. Homogeneous Propellants ...................... 213
4.3.1.1. Single-Base Propellants ............ 213
4.3.1.2. Double-Base Propellants ............ 214
4.3.1.3. Triple-Base Propellants ............ 214
4.3.2. Heterogeneous Propellants .................... 214
4.3.2.1. Composite Propellants .............. 214
4.3.2.2. Composite Modified Double-Base
Propellants ........................ 215
4.3.2.3. Fuel-Rich Propellants .............. 215
4.4. Hybrid Propellants ................................... 217
4.5. Thixotropic Propellants .............................. 217
4.6. Performance of Propellants ........................... 218
4.6.1. Gun Propellants .............................. 218
4.6.1.1. Force Constant ..................... 218
4.6.1.2. Burning Rate Coefficients .......... 219
4.6.1.3. Vivacity ........................... 219
4.6.1.4. Muzzle Velocity .................... 219
4.6.1.5. Efficiencies of Gun System and
Charge ............................. 220
4.6.2. Rocket Propellants ........................... 220
4.6.2.1. Burn Rate .......................... 221
4.6.2.2. Thrust ............................. 222
4.6.2.3. Specific Impulse (lsp) ............. 222
4.6.2.4. Chamber Pressure ................... 223
4.6.2.5. Characteristic Velocity (C*) ....... 223
4.6.2.6. Temperature Sensitivity ............ 224
4.7. Formulation of Gun Propellants ....................... 226
4.8. Ingredients of Gun Propellants ....................... 227
4.8.1. High Energy Propellants ...................... 228
4.8.2. Low Vulnerability Gun Propellants ............ 228
4.8.2.1. Ingredients of LOVA Gun
Propellants ........................ 229
4.8.3. Liquid Gun Propellants ....................... 231
4.8.3.1. Hydroxyl Ammonium Nitrate Liquid
Gun Propellants
4.8.3.2. DMAZ Liquid Gun Propellants ........ 233
4.9. Ingredients of Solid Rocket Propellants .............. 234
4.9.1. Oxidizers .................................... 234
4.9.1.1. Ammonium Nitrate ................... 235
4.9.1.2. Ammonium Dinitramide ............... 237
4.9.1.3. Hydrazinium Nitroformate ........... 239
4.9.2. Binders ...................................... 243
4.9.2.1. Characteristics of Binders ......... 243
4.9.2.2. Polyurethanes as Binders ........... 244
4.9.2.3. Novel Binders ...................... 249
Inert or Non-Energetic Binders ..... 249
Energetic Binders .................. 252
4.9.3. Metal Fuels .................................. 265
4.9.4. Plasticizers ................................. 267
4.9.4.1. Classification of Plasticizers ..... 267
4.9.4.2. Characteristics of Plasticizers .... 268
4.9.4.3. Functions of Plasticizers .......... 268
4.9.4.4. Migration of Plasticizers .......... 268
4.9.4.5. Novel Plasticizers ................. 271
Nitroxyethyl Nitramine
Plasticizers ....................... 271
Polynitro Aliphatic Plasticizers ... 272
Rowanite 8001 or K-10
Plasticizer ........................ 273
Azido Plasticizers ................. 273
Energetic Oligomeric
Plasticizers ....................... 274
Nitrate Ester Plasticizers ......... 275
4.9.5. Bonding Agents ............................... 275
4.9.6. Stabilizers .................................. 277
4.9.7. Burn-Rate Modifiers .......................... 280
4.9.7.1. Burn-Rate Modifiers for DB
Propellants ........................ 281
4.9.7.2. Less Toxic and Non-Toxic Burn-
Rate Modifiers for DB
Propellants ........................ 284
4.9.7.3. Burn-Rate Modifiers for CMDB
Propellants ........................ 284
4.9.7.4. Burn-Rate Modifiers for Composite
Propellants ........................ 284
Metallic Oxides .................... 284
Ferrocene Derivatives .............. 287
Butacene ........................... 287
4.10. Inhibition of Rocket Propellants ..................... 289
4.10.1. Characteristics of Inhibitors ................ 291
4.10.2. Testing of Inhibitors ........................ 291
4.10.3. Ballistic Evaluation of Inhibited
Propellants .................................. 292
4.10.4. Materials for Inhibition ..................... 293
4.10.5. Techniques of Inhibition ..................... 294
4.10.5.1. Sleeve Technique ................... 294
4.10.5.2. Tape-Winding Technique ............. 294
4.10.5.3. Casting Technique .................. 295
4.10.5.4. Thread-Winding Technique ........... 295
4.10.5.5. Inhibitor Sleeve Technique ......... 296
4.10.6. Inhibition of Double-Base Propellants ........ 298
4.10.6.1. Tailoring of Properties of
Unsaturated Polyesters ............. 300
4.10.6.2. Recent Trends ...................... 301
4.10.7. Inhibition of Composite Propellants .......... 302
4.10.7.1. Chemistry of Epoxy Resins .......... 302
Epoxy Resins ....................... 304
Novolac Epoxy Resins ............... 304
Synthesis .......................... 305
Curing Agents for Epoxy Resins ..... 306
Cure Mechanism ..................... 308
4.10.7.2. Novel Systems ...................... 308
4.10.7.3. Plasticizer Migration in
Composite Propellants .............. 308
4.10.8. Inhibition of CMDB Propellants ............... 308
4.11. Insulation of Rocket Motors .......................... 313
4.11.1. Characteristics of Insulators or Insulating
Materials .................................... 313
4.11.2. Materials for Insulation ..................... 314
4.11.3. Process for Insulation of Motors ............. 315
4.11.4. Future Materials for Insulation .............. 325
References ................................................. 316
5. Pyrotechnics ............................................... 331
5.1. Introduction ......................................... 331
5.2. General Features of Pyrotechnics ..................... 332
5.3. Ingredients of Pyrotechnic Formulations .............. 333
5.3.1. Fuels ........................................ 333
5.3.2. Oxidizers .................................... 334
5.3.3. Binders ...................................... 334
5.3.4. Coolants ..................................... 335
5.3.5. Retardants ................................... 335
5.3.6. Dyes ......................................... 335
5.3.7. Color Intensifies ............................ 335
5.3.8. Moderators ................................... 335
5.4. Important Characteristics of Ingredients for
Pyrotechnic Formulations ............................. 336
5.4.1. Density ...................................... 336
5.4.2. Hygroscopicity ............................... 337
5.4.3. Melting and Boiling Points and
Decomposition Temperatures ................... 338
5.4.4. Oxygen Content of Oxidizers .................. 339
5.4.5. Thermal Conductivity of Fuels and
Containers ................................... 339
5.4.6. Nature of Combustion Products ................ 339
5.4.7. Toxicity of Ingredients ...................... 340
5.5. Types of Pyrotechnic Formulations .................... 341
5.5.1. Illuminating Formulations .................... 341
5.5.1.1. Chemical Nature of Fuel and
Oxidizer, Their Proportions
and Particle Size .................. 342
5.5.1.2. Formulations of Tracers ............ 346
5.5.1.3. Photon 1 ash Formulations .......... 347
5.5.1.4. Signal Formulations ................ 347
5.5.1.5. Infrared Flare Formulations ........ 348
5.5.1.6. Some Resins for Illuminating
Formulations ....................... 351
Liquid Polysulfides ................ 351
Epoxy-Liquid Polysulfide Blends .... 352
Vinyl Acetate Alcohol Resins ....... 352
5.5.2. Delay Formulations ........................... 354
5.5.2.1. Requirements of an Ideal Delay
Formulation ........................ 355
5.5.2.2. Factors Affecting the Performance
of Delay Formulations .............. 355
5.5.2.3. Types of Delay Formulations ........ 356
Gas-producing (Slagless) Delay
Formulations ....................... 356
Gasless Delay Formulations ......... 357
5.5.3. Smoke Formulations ........................... 358
5.5.3.1. Requirements for Smokes ............ 359
5.5.3.2. Classification of Smokes ........... 359
5.5.3.3. Types of Smoke Agents .............. 360
5.5.3.4. Colored Smokes ..................... 362
5.5.3.5. Lachrymatory Smokes ................ 364
5.5.3.6. Non-toxic and Eco-friendly
Smokes ............................. 364
5.5.3.7. Infrared Screening Smokes .......... 365
5.5.3.8. Chemistry of Phosphorus ............ 367
Stability of Red Phosphorus ........ 369
Applications for Red Phosphorus .... 370
5.5.4. Incendiary Formulations ...................... 373
5.5.4.1. Characteristics of Incendiary
Materials .......................... 374
Essential Characteristics .......... 374
Desirable Characteristics .......... 374
5.5.4.2. Liquid Incendiaries ................ 375
5.5.4.3. Solid Incendiaries ................. 376
5.5.4.4. Chemistry of Napalm ................ 379
5.6. Performance Assessment of Pyrotechnic Formulations ... 381
5.6.1. Ignition Temperature ......................... 381
5.6.2. Mechanical Properties ........................ 381
5.6.3. Moisture Absorption .......................... 381
5.6.4. Heat Output and Gas Volume ................... 382
5.6.5. Luminous Intensity ........................... 382
5.6.6. IR Intensity ................................. 383
5.6.7. Burning Rate ................................. 384
5.6.8. Screening Performance of Smokes .............. 385
5.6.8.1. Total Obscuring Power .............. 385
5.6.8.2. Yield Factor (Y) ................... 386
5.6.8.3. Mass Extinction Coefficient (a) .... 386
5.6.8.4. Obscuration Effectiveness .......... 387
5.7. Life of Ammunition with Pyrotechnic Devices .......... 387
5.8. Nanomaterials: Various Aspects and Use in HEM
Formulations ......................................... 389
5.8.1. Synthesis of Nanomaterials ................... 390
5.8.1.1. Physical Methods ................... 390
5.8.1.2. Chemical Methods ................... 391
5.8.2. Carbon Nanotubes ............................. 393
5.8.2.1. Synthesis of CNTs .................. 393
5.8.2.2. Some Properties and Applications
of CNTs ............................ 394
5.8.3. Nanosized Fuels .............................. 394
5.8.3.1. Nano-Aluminum Powder ............... 394
5.8.3.2. Other Nanometal Powders ............ 396
5.8.4. Nano-oxidizers ............................... 397
5.8.5. General Properties of Nanomaterials .......... 398
5.8.6. Nanomaterials for Pyrotechnic Formulations ... 398
5.8.7. Nanomaterials for Propellant Formulations .... 400
5.8.8. Nanomaterials for Explosive Formulations ..... 401
5.9. Recent and Future Trends in Pyrotechnics ............. 401
5.9.1. Energetic Binders, Plasticizers and
Oxidizers .................................... 401
5.9.2. Exotic Salts of Lithium, Rubidium and
Caesium and their Formulations ............... 402
5.9.3. Dinitramide Salts of Alkali Metals and Their
Formulations ................................. 403
5.9.4. Moisture Resistant Coatings for Metal
Powders ...................................... 404
5.9.5. New Fuels as Substitute for Charcoal ......... 405
5.9.6. High Nitrogen Content-High Energy Materials
for Pyrotechnic Formulations ................. 406
References ................................................. 406
6. Explosive and Chemical Safety .............................. 413
6.1. Safety ............................................... 413
6.2. Explosive Safety ..................................... 414
6.2.1. UN Classification of Dangerous Goods
and Hazardous Chemicals ...................... 416
6.2.1.1. Hazard Divisions ................... 417
6.2.1.2. Compatibility Groups for
Explosives and Ammunition .......... 420
6.2.1.3. Hazard Classification .............. 422
6.3. Fire Safety .......................................... 422
6.3.1. Fire Divisions ............................... 423
6.3.2. Classes of Fires, Fire Extinguishers and
Fire Fighting ................................ 424
6.3.2.1. Classes of Fires 425
6.3.2.2. Designations and Ratings of Fire
Extinguishers ...................... 425
6.3.2.3. Fire-fighting Procedures ........... 425
6.4. Safety Aspects for Transportation of Explosives
and Ammunition ....................................... 427
6.5. Safety Aspects for Storage of Explosives and
Ammunition ........................................... 428
6.6. Safety Aspects for Handling of Explosives and
Ammunition ........................................... 432
6.7. Static Electricity Hazards ........................... 433
6.8. Extremely Insensitive Detonating Substances and
Ammunition ........................................... 435
6.9. Hazard and Risk Analysis ............................. 438
6.9.1. Hazards and Operability (HAZOP) .............. 438
6.9.2. Hazard Analysis (HAZAN) ...................... 439
6.10. Chemical Safety ...................................... 439
6.11. Prevention and Elimination of Explosions,
Accidents and Fires .................................. 439
6.11.1. Operations and Organization .................. 440
6.11.2. Honor the Explosives ......................... 441
6.11.3. Use of Personal Protective Equipment ......... 442
6.11.4. Cleanliness and Good Housekeeping ............ 443
6.11.5. Waste Collection and Disposal ................ 444
6.11.6. Training ..................................... 445
References ................................................. 446
Index ......................................................... 449
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