Preface ........................................................ xi
Acknowledgements ............................................. xiii
1 Introduction to Karst ........................................ 1
1.1 Definitions ............................................. 1
1.2 The Relationships of Karst with General Geomorphology
and Hydrogeology ........................................ 4
1.3 The Global Distribution of Karst ........................ 5
1.4 The Growth of Ideas ..................................... 6
1.5 Aims of the Book ........................................ 8
1.6 Karst Terminology ....................................... 8
2 The Karst Rocks .............................................. 9
2.1 Carbonate Rocks and Minerals ............................ 9
2.2 Limestone Compositions and Depositional Facies ......... 12
2.3 Limestone Diagenesis and the Formation of Dolomite ..... 18
2.4 The Evaporite Rocks .................................... 24
2.5 Quartzites and Siliceous Sandstones .................... 27
2.6 Effects of Lithological Properties upon Karst
Development ............................................ 28
2.7 Interbedded Clastic Rocks .............................. 31
2.8 Bedding Planes, Joints, Faults and Fracture Traces ..... 31
2.9 Fold Topography ........................................ 35
2.10 Palaeokarst Unconformities ............................. 36
3 Dissolution: Chemical and Kinetic Behaviour of the Karst
Rocks ....................................................... 39
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 39
3.2 Aqueous Solutions and Chemical Equilibria .............. 41
3.3 The Dissolution of Anhydrite, Gypsum and Salt .......... 44
3.4 The Dissolution of Silica .............................. 45
3.5 Bicarbonate Equilibria and the Dissolution of
Carbonate Rocks in Normal Meteoric Waters .............. 45
3.6 The S-O-H System and the Dissolution of Carbonate
Rocks .................................................. 53
3.7 Chemical Complications in Carbonate Dissolution ........ 57
3.8 Biokarst Processes ..................................... 61
3.9 Measurements in the Field and Laboratory: Computer
Programs ............................................... 62
3.10 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics of Karst
Rocks .................................................. 65
4 Distribution and Rate of Karst Denudation ................... 77
4.1 Global Variations in the Solutional Denudation of
Carbonate Terrains ..................................... 77
4.2 Measurement and Calculation of Solutional Denudation
Rates .................................................. 82
4.3 Solution Rates in Gypsum, Salt and Other Non-
Carbonate Rocks ........................................ 90
4.4 Interpretation of Measurements ......................... 92
5 Karst Hydrogeology ......................................... 103
5.1 Basic Hydrogeological Concepts, Terms and
Definitions ........................................... 103
5.2 Controls on the Development of Karst Hydrological
Systems ............................................... 116
5.3 Energy Supply and Flow-Network Development ............ 124
5.4 Development of the Water Table and Phreatic Zones ..... 129
5.5 Development of the Vadose Zone ........................ 132
5.6 Classification and Characteristics of Karst
Aquifers .............................................. 134
5.7 Applicability of Darcy's Law to Karst ................. 136
5.8 Freshwater-Saltwater Interface ........................ 140
6 Analysis of Karst Drainage Systems ......................... 145
6.1 The 'Grey Box' Nature of Karst ........................ 145
6.2 Surface Exploration and Survey Techniques ............. 146
6.3 Investigating Recharge and Percolation in the Vadose
Zone .................................................. 153
6.4 Borehole Analysis ..................................... 163
6.5 Spring Hydrograph Analysis ............................ 173
6.6 Polje Hydrograph Analysis ............................. 181
6.7 Spring Chemograph Interpretation ...................... 182
6.8 Storage Volumes and Flow Routing Under Different
States of the Hydrograph .............................. 187
6.9 Interpreting the Organization of a Karst Aquifer ...... 189
6.10 Water-Tracing Techniques .............................. 191
6.11 Computer Modelling of Karst Aquifers .................. 203
7 Speleogenesis: The Development of Cave Systems ............. 209
7.1 Classifying Cave Systems .............................. 209
7.2 Building the Plan Patterns of Unconfined Caves ........ 214
7.3 Unconfined Cave Development in Length and Depth ....... 222
7.4 System Modifications Occurring within a Single
Phase ................................................. 231
7.5 Multiphase Cave Systems ............................... 233
7.6 Meteoric Water Caves Developed Where There is
Confined Circulation or Basal Injection of Water ...... 236
7.7 Hypogene Caves: Hydrothermal Caves Associated
Chiefly with CО2 ...................................... 240
7.8 Hypogene Caves: Caves Formed by Waters Containing
H2S ................................................... 243
7.9 Sea-Coast Eogenetic Caves ............................. 246
7.10 Passage Cross-Sections and Smaller Features of
Erosional Morphology .................................. 249
7.11 Condensation, Condensation Corrosion and Weathering
in Caves .............................................. 261
7.12 Breakdown in Caves .................................... 265
8 Cave Interior Deposits ..................................... 271
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 271
8.2 Clastic Sediments ..................................... 271
8.3 Calcite, Aragonite and Other Carbonate Precipitates ... 281
8.4 Other Cave Minerals ................................... 292
8.5 Ice in Caves .......................................... 294
8.6 Dating of Calcite Speleothems and Other Cave
Deposits .............................................. 298
8.7 Palaeoenvironmental Analysis of Calcite Speleothems ... 306
8.8 Mass Flux Through a Cave System: The Example of
Friar's Hole, West Virginia ........................... 320
9 Karst Landform Development in Humid Regions ................ 321
9.1 Coupled Hydrological and Geochemical Systems .......... 321
9.2 Small-Scale Solution Sculpture - Microkarren and
Karren ................................................ 321
9.3 Dolines - The 'Diagnostic' Karst Landform? ............ 339
9.4 The Origin and Development of Solution Dolines ........ 342
9.5 The Origin of Collapse and Subsidence Depressions ..... 346
9.6 Polygonal Karst ....................................... 351
9.7 Morphometric Analysis of Solution Dolines ............. 353
9.8 Landforms Associated with Allogenic Inputs: Contact
Karst ................................................. 358
9.9 Karst Poljes .......................................... 361
9.10 Corrosional Plains and Shifts in Baselevel ............ 365
9.11 Residual Hills on Karst Plains ........................ 370
9.12 Depositional and Constructional Karst Features ........ 377
9.13 Special Features of Evaporite Terrains ................ 381
9.14 Karstic Features of Quartzose and Other Rocks ......... 388
9.15 Sequences of Carbonate Karst Evolution in Humid
Terrains .............................................. 391
9.16 Computer Models of Karst Landscape Evolution .......... 395
10 The Influence of Climate, Climatic Change and Other
Environmental Factors on Karst Development ................. 401
10.1 The Precepts of Climatic Geomorphology ................ 401
10.2 The Hot Arid Extreme .................................. 402
10.3 The Cold Extreme: Karst Development in Glaciated
Terrains .............................................. 410
10.4 The Cold Extreme: Karst Development in Permafrozen
Terrains .............................................. 421
10.5 Sea-Level Changes, Tectonic Movement and
Implications for Coastal Karst Development ............ 427
10.6 Polycyclic, Polygenetic and Exhumed Karsts ........... 434
11 Karst Water Resources Management ........................... 441
11.1 Water Resources and Sustainable Yields ................ 441
11.2 Determination of Available Water Resources ............ 442
11.3 Karst Hydrogeological Mapping ......................... 445
11.4 Human Impacts on Karst Water .......................... 449
11.5 Groundwater Vulnerability, Protection and Risk
Mapping ............................................... 460
11.6 Dam Building, Leakages, Failures and Impacts .......... 464
12 Human Impacts and Environmental Rehabilitation ............. 471
12.1 The Inherent Vulnerability of Karst Systems ........... 471
12.2 Deforestation, Agricultural Impacts and Rocky
Desertification ....................................... 473
12.3 Sinkholes, Induced by Dewatering, Surcharging,
Solution Mining and other Practices on Karst .......... 478
12.4 Problems of Construction on and in the Karst Rocks -
Expect the Unexpected! ................................ 485
12.5 Industrial Exploitation of Karst Rocks and Minerals ... 489
12.6 Restoration of Karstlands and Rehabilitation of
Limestone Quarries .................................... 494
12.7 Sustainable Management of Karst ....................... 499
12.8 Scientific, Cultural and Recreational Values of
Karstlands ............................................ 502
References .................................................... 505
Indех ......................................................... 554
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