Series Preface ................................................. xi
Preface ...................................................... xiii
Acknowledgements ............................................. xvii
Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols ........................... xix
About the Author ............................................ xxiii
1. Contaminated Land and the Link to Human Health ............... 1
1.1. Introduction ........................................... 1
1.2. Soil Guideline Values .................................. 2
1.2.1. Residential ..................................... 5
1.2.2. Allotments ...................................... 5
1.2.3. Commercial/Industrial ........................... 5
1.3. Risk to Humans ......................................... 7
1.4. An Approach to Assess Contaminated Soils Relative
to Soil Guideline Values ............................... 8
1.4.1. Mean-Value Test ................................. 9
1.4.2. Maximum-Value Test ............................. 11
References .................................................. 14
2. Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques for Elemental
Analysis of Environmental Contaminants ...................... 17
2.1. Introduction .......................................... 18
2.2. Sample Preparation for Elemental Analysis ............. 18
2.2.1. Solid Samples .................................. 18
2.2.2. Liquid Samples ................................. 21
2.3. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy ........................ 25
2.4. Atomic Emission Spectroscopy .......................... 33
2.5. Inorganic Mass Spectrometry ........................... 40
2.5.1 Interferences in ICP-MS ......................... 45
2.6. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy ....................... 49
2.7. Electrochemistry ...................................... 51
2.8. Hyphenated Techniques ................................. 52
2.9. Comparison of Elemental Analytical Techniques ......... 53
2.10. Selected Resources on Elemental Analytical
Techniques ............................................ 56
2.10.1.Specific Books on Atomic Spectroscopy .......... 56
2.10.2.Specific Books on Electroanalytical
Techniques .................................... 58
3. Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques for
Persistent Organic Pollutant Analysis of Environmental
Contaminants ................................................ 59
3.1. Introduction .......................................... 60
3.2. Sample Preparation for Persistent Organic Pollutant
Analysis .............................................. 60
3.2.1. Solid Samples .................................. 60
3.2.2. Liquid Samples ................................. 67
3.3. Gas Chromatography .................................... 72
3.4. High Performance Liquid Chromatography ................ 74
3.5. Interfacing Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry ...... 78
3.6. Comparison of Persistent Organic Pollutant
Analytical Techniques ................................. 84
3.7. Selected Resources on Persistent Organic Pollutant
Analytical Techniques ................................. 85
3.7.1. Specific Books on Chromatography ............... 85
4. Methods Used to Assess Bioavailability of Metals ............ 89
4.1. Non-Exhaustive Extraction Techniques for Metals ....... 89
4.2. Single Extraction Methods for Metals .................. 90
4.3. Sequential Extraction Techniques for Metals ........... 99
4.4. Earthworms ........................................... 107
4.4.1. Earthworms in Bioavailability Studies ......... 111
4.4.2. Chemical-Extraction Methods to Estimate
Bioavailability of Metals by Earthworms ....... 124
4.5. Plant Uptake ......................................... 126
4.6. Certified Reference Materials ........................ 127
References ................................................. 141
5. Methods Used to Assess Bioavailability of Persistent
Organic Pollutants ......................................... 145
5.1. Introduction ......................................... 145
5.2. Non-Exhaustive Extraction Techniques for POPs ........ 146
5.2.1. Selective or 'Mild-Solvent' Extraction ........ 148
5.2.2. Cyclodextrin Extraction ....................... 164
5.2.3. Supercritical-Fluid Extraction ................ 168
5.2.4. Other Approaches .............................. 174
5.3. Earthworm Studies .................................... 176
5.3.1. Chemical-Extraction Methods Used to Estimate
the Bioavailability of POPs by Earthworms ..... 178
5.4. Plant Uptake ......................................... 183
References ................................................. 189
6. Methods Used to Assess Oral Bioaccessibility ............... 191
6.1. Introduction ......................................... 191
6.2. Introduction to Human Physiology ..................... 193
6.3. Considerations in the Design and Development of a
Simulated in vitro Gastrointestinal Extraction
Method ............................................... 195
6.3.1. Design of an in vitro Gastrointestinal
Method ........................................ 195
6.3.2. Development of an in vitro Gastrointestinal
Method ........................................ 196
6.4. Approaches to Assess the Bioaccessibility of
Metals ............................................... 198
6.5. Approaches to Assess the Bioaccessibility of
Persistent Organic Pollutants ........................ 210
6.6. Validity for Measuring Bioaccessibility .............. 213
References ................................................. 213
7. Selected Case Studies on Bioavailability,
Bioaccessibility and Mobility of Environmental
Contaminants ............................................... 215
7.1. Bioavailability of Metals by Plants .................. 215
7.1.1. Background .................................... 215
7.1.2. Experimental .................................. 216
7.1.3. Results and Discussion ........................ 218
7.1.4. Conclusions ................................... 224
7.1.5. Specific References ........................... 224
7.2. Bioaccessibility of Metals from Plants ............... 227
7.2.1. Background .................................... 227
7.2.2. Experimental .................................. 227
7.2.3. Results and Discussion ........................ 229
7.2.4. Conclusions ................................... 232
7.3. Bioavailability of POPs by Plants .................... 232
7.3.1. Background .................................... 232
7.3.2. Experimental .................................. 232
7.3.3. Results and Discussion ........................ 234
7.3.4. Conclusions ................................... 235
7.4. Bioaccessibility of POPs from Plants ................. 235
7.4.1. Background .................................... 235
7.4.2. Experimental .................................. 235
7.4.3. Results and Discussion ........................ 237
7.4.4. Conclusions ................................... 238
8. Recording of Information and Selected Resources ............ 241
8.1. Safety ............................................... 241
8.2. Recording of Information in the Laboratory ........... 242
8.2.1. Introduction .................................. 242
8.2.2. Examples of Data Sheets ....................... 243
8.3. Selected Resources ................................... 253
Responses to Self-Assessment Questions ........................ 259
Glossary of Terms ............................................. 275
SI Units and Physical Constants ............................... 281
Periodic Table ................................................ 285
Index ......................................................... 287
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