Casazza J. Understanding electric power systems: an overview of the technology, the marketplace, and government regulation / J.Casazza, F.Delea. - 2nd ed. - Piscataway: IEEE Press; Hoboken: Wiley, 2010. - xix, 320 p.: ill., maps. - (IEEE Press understanding science & technology series). - Ind.: p.313-320. - ISBN 978-0-470-48418-0  Место хранения:   06 | Якутский научный центр СО РАН | Якутск | Центральная научная библиотека Якутского научного центра СО РАН

Оглавление / Contents

Preface to the Second Edition .................................. xv Acknowledgments ............................................... xix Chapter 1. Benefits of Electric Power and a History of the Electric Power Industry .......................... 1 1.1 Societal Benefits of Electricity ........................... 1 1.2 Origin of the Industry ..................................... 2 1.3 The Development of the National Electric Power Grid ........ 5 1.4 "The Golden Age" ........................................... 8 Blackouts and the Reliability Crisis ....................... 9 The Environmental Crises—The Shift to Low-Sulfur Oil ...... 10 The Fuel Crisis—The Shift from Oil ........................ 10 The Financial Crisis ...................................... 11 The Legislative and Regulatory Crisis ..................... 12 1.5 Global Warming Crisis and Concerns about Carbon Emissions ................................................. 13 1.6 Restructuring, Competition, and the Industry Ownership Structure ................................................. 13 Chapter 2. The Electric Power System ........................... 15 2.1 The Customers ............................................. 16 2.2 Sources of the Electric Energy—Generation ................. 17 2.3 The Delivery System ....................................... 20 Interconnections .......................................... 24 The Grid .................................................. 24 Chapter 3. Basic Electric Power Concepts ....................... 27 3.1 Electric Energy ........................................... 28 3.2 Concepts Relating to the Flow of Electricity .............. 30 Direct Current (DC) ....................................... 31 Alternating Current (AC) .................................. 31 Three Phases .............................................. 33 Synchronism ............................................... 34 3.3 Characteristics of AC Systems ............................. 34 Resistance ................................................ 34 Induction and Inductive Reactance ......................... 35 Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance ...................... 36 Impedance ................................................. 38 3.4 Ohm's Law for Alternating Current ......................... 38 3.5 Power in Alternating Current Circuits ..................... 39 Real Power ................................................ 40 Reactive Power ............................................ 40 Transformers .............................................. 42 3.6 Power Flow ................................................ 43 Division of Power Flow .................................... 43 Voltage Drop and Reactive Power Flow ...................... 44 3.7 Stability ................................................. 44 Automatic Generation Controls (AGC) ............................ 46 Results of Instability ......................................... 47 Chapter 4. Electric Energy Consumption ......................... 49 4.1 End Uses for Electricity .................................. 49 4.2 Customer Classes .......................................... 50 4.3 Rate Classes .............................................. 51 4.4 Demand and Energy ......................................... 51 Energy 52. Effects of Load Diversity ........................... 53 4.5 System Load ............................................... 55 Load Management ........................................... 57 4.6 Reactive Load ............................................. 59 4.7 Losses and Unaccounted-For Energy in the Delivery System .................................................... 59 4.8 Forecasts ................................................. 61 Chapter 5. Electric Power Generation and Concerns About Greenhouse Gases .................................... 65 5.1 Generation's Role ......................................... 65 5.2 Types of Generation ....................................... 66 5.3 Thermal Conversion: Using Fuel as the Energy Resource ..... 69 Steam Cycle—Steam Turbines ................................ 69 Combustion (Gas) Turbines ................................. 70 Combined Cycle ............................................ 71 Nuclear ................................................... 72 Reciprocating Engines ..................................... 73 Microturbines ............................................. 74 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) or Cogeneration ............. 74 5.4 Thermal Conversion: Nonfuel Heat Sources .................. 74 Geothermal ................................................ 74 Solar Thermal Generation .................................. 75 5.5 Mechanical Energy Conversion .............................. 75 Hydroturbines and Hydropumped Storage ..................... 75 Wind Turbines ............................................. 77 Distributed Generation and Other Sources .................. 78 5.6 Renewable Technologies and Greenhouse Gas Emissions ....... 79 Supply-Side Options to Reduce Greenhouse .................. 79 Gas Emissions Financial Options to Reduce Carbon Emissions ................................................. 83 5.7 Characteristics of Generating Plants ...................... 84 Size ...................................................... 85 Efficiency ................................................ 87 Availability .............................................. 88 Schedulable and Unschedulable Units ....................... 90 5.8 Capital Cost of Generation ................................ 90 5.9 Generator Life Extension .................................. 91 5.10 The Technology of Generation .............................. 91 Synchronous Generators .................................... 91 Variable Frequency and Direct Current Generation .......... 92 5.11 System Needs and Evaluation of Intermittent Resources ..... 93 chapter 6. The Technology of the Electric Transmission System .............................................. 97 6.1 Components ................................................ 97 6.2 HVAC ...................................................... 98 Overhead Lines ............................................ 98 Overhead Line Capability—Ratings .......................... 99 Transmission Cable ....................................... 101 Cable Capacity ........................................... 101 Submarine Cables ......................................... 102 Superconducting Cables ................................... 102 6.3 Substations .............................................. 102 Substation Equipment ..................................... 103 Substation Circuit Breaker Arrangements .................. 108 Transmission System Aging ................................ 108 6.4 HVDC ..................................................... 108 6.5 Advantages of AC over DC Operation ....................... 110 Advantages of HVDC ....................................... 111 Disadvantages of HVDC .................................... 112 6.5 Knowledge Required of Transmission Systems ............... 113 Chapter 7. Distribution ....................................... 115 7.1 Function of Distribution ................................. 115 7.2 Primary Distribution Feeders ............................. 116 Radial Systems ........................................... 116 Loop Systems ............................................. 117 Primary Network Systems .................................. 117 Secondary Systems ........................................ 117 7.3 Distribution Capacity .................................... 118 7.4 Losses ................................................... 119 7.5 Distribution Facility Ratings ............................ 119 7.6 Metering ................................................. 120 7.7 Control of Distribution Voltages ......................... 120 Distribution Transformers ................................ 121 Voltage Regulators ....................................... 122 Capacitors ............................................... 123 7.8 Distribution System Reliability .......................... 123 7.10 Quality of Service ....................................... 124 7.11 Design of Distribution Systems ........................... 125 7.12 Distributed Generation ................................... 125 7.13 Operation of Distribution Systems ........................ 126 7.14 Smart Grids and Microgrids ............................... 127 Chapter 8. Energy Storage and Other New Technologies .......... 129 8.1 Energy Storage ........................................... 131 Benefits of Energy Storage to Generation ................. 131 Benefits of Energy Storage to Transmission and Distribution ............................................. 132 8.2 Energy Storage Concepts and Technologies ................. 133 Mechanical Systems ....................................... 133 Thermal Energy Storage ................................... 136 Chemical Energy Storage .................................. 138 Batteries ................................................ 138 Hydrogen Energy Storage Systems .......................... 139 Electrical Storage ....................................... 140 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage .................. 141 Power Conversion Equipment ............................... 141 The Future for Energy Storage ............................ 142 8.3 Smart Grid ............................................... 142 Microgrids ............................................... 146 8.4 New Nuclear Plant Designs ................................ 146 8.5 Carbon Sequestration and Clean Coal Technologies ......... 150 8.6 Superconductors .......................................... 153 Chapter 9. Reliability ........................................ 155 9.1 Causes of Outages ........................................ 155 9.2 Costs of Power Outages ................................... 157 9.3 Ways to Measure Reliability .............................. 158 9.4 Planning and Operating a Reliable and Adequate Power System ................................................... 159 Generation ............................................... 164 Transmission ............................................. 165 Distribution ............................................. 166 9.5 Summary .................................................. 166 Chapter 10. The Physical Network: The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) and Its Standards ......................................... 167 10.1 NERC as Electric Reliability Organization ............... 169 10.2 NERC Standards .......................................... 171 Functional Model ........................................ 171 10.3 Development of Standards ................................ 176 Reliability Principles .................................. 177 Market Interface Principles ............................. 177 Compliance with NERC Standards .......................... 179 Other NERC Responsibilities ............................. 179 The Future .............................................. 180 Chapter 11. The Physical Network: Operation of the Electric Bulk Power ........................................ 181 11.1 Balancing Authorities ................................... 181 Area Control ............................................ 182 Operating Reserves ...................................... 184 11.2 Reliability Coordinators ................................ 184 11.3 Transmission Operators .................................. 186 Power Transfer Limits ................................... 186 Determination of Total Transfer Capability .............. 187 Parallel Path Flow and Loop Flow ........................ 188 Reduction of Power Transfers—Congestion Management ...... 189 Ancillary Services ...................................... 189 11.4 Voltage and Reactive Control ............................ 191 11.5 Emergencies ............................................. 192 Operating Emergencies ................................... 193 11.6 Information Exchange .................................... 194 Chapter 12 The Physical Network: Planning of the Electric Bulk Power System .................................. 197 12.1 Planning Standards ...................................... 198 12.2 Generation Planning ..................................... 198 12.3 Transmission Planning ................................... 200 Transmission System Planning Studies .................... 203 12.4 Least Cost Planning ..................................... 205 12.5 The New Planning Environment ............................ 205 Recent Transmission Projects ............................ 211 Chapter 13. The Regulatory Network: Legislation ............... 213 13.1 Pricing and Regulation .................................. 213 13.2 Federal Legislation ..................................... 214 13.3 Federal Utility Holding Company Act (PUHCA) ............. 214 13.4 Federal Power Act ....................................... 216 13.5 Other 1930 Federal Laws ................................. 219 13.6 Department of Energy Organization Act ................... 219 13.7 Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) .......... 220 13.8 Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct02) ..................... 222 13.9 The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct05) ................. 224 13.10 The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ........ 227 13.11 Environmental Laws ...................................... 227 13.12 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act ............. 230 Chapter 14. The Regulatory Network: The Regulators ............ 231 14.1 The Regulators ........................................... 231 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) .............. 231 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) .................... 233 Department of Energy (DOE) ............................... 234 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) ...................... 236 Recent Federal Regulations ............................... 237 FERC Actions after EPAct92................................ 237 FERC Actions Implementing EPAct05 ........................ 242 Market Manipulation ...................................... 242 Electricity Reliability and Infrastructure ............... 242 Expansion and Modernization of the Nation's Electricity Grid ......................................... 245 Siting Major New Transmission Facilities ................. 245 PURPA Reforms ............................................ 246 Repeal of PUHCA—Mergers and Acquisitions ................. 246 Market-Based Rates ....................................... 247 Recent EPA Actions ....................................... 248 State Regulatory Authority ............................... 249 State Utility Restructuring .............................. 250 Overall Regulatory Problems .............................. 251 Chapter 15. The Information, Communication, and Control Network and Security .............................. 253 15.1 Smart Grid ............................................... 253 15.2 Financial and Business Operations ........................ 254 15.3 System Operations ........................................ 255 15.4 Distribution Operations .................................. 255 15.5 Cyber Security ........................................... 256 15.6 Nuclear Plant Security ................................... 259 Chapter 16. The Fuel and Energy Network ....................... 261 16.1 Resource Procurement ..................................... 264 Fuel Measurements ........................................ 265 16.2 Fuel Transportation ...................................... 265 16.3 Fuel Diversity ........................................... 266 16.4 Fossil Fuels Used ........................................ 267 16.5 Renewable Energy ......................................... 269 16.6 Fuel Purchasing .......................................... 271 16.7 Emission Rights .......................................... 271 Chapter 17. The Business Network: Market Participants ......... 273 17.1 Investment and Cost Recovery ............................. 273 17.2 The Changing Industry Structure .......................... 274 Functional Unbundling .................................... 274 Additional Utility Responses ............................. 275 ISO/RTO Formation ........................................ 275 Holding Company Formation ................................ 275 Power Plant Divestitures ................................. 277 17.3 New Structures ........................................... 279 Power Producers .......................................... 279 Independent Transmission Companies and Operators ......... 279 Impact of Restructuring on the Transmission System ....... 280 Distributors ............................................. 280 Power Marketers .......................................... 281 17.4 New Corporate Ownership .................................. 281 Utility Mergers and Acquisitions ......................... 282 Acquisitions by Foreign Companies ........................ 282 Financial Institutions ................................... 283 Chapter 18. The Money Network: Wholesale Markets .............. 285 18.1 The Energy Markets ....................................... 286 Standard Market Design (SMD) ............................. 288 Locational Marginal Pricing (LMP) ........................ 289 18.2 Transmission ............................................. 291 Transmission Rights ...................................... 291 Physical Transmission Rights (PTRs) ...................... 292 Financial Transmission Rights (FTRs) ..................... 293 Wheeling and Customer Choice ............................. 294 Contracts and Agreements ................................. 294 Average System versus Incremental Costs .................. 295 18.3 Customer Late Issues ..................................... 294 Construction Work in Progress (CWIP) ..................... 295 Setting of Rates ......................................... 296 Rate Freezes ............................................. 296 Allocation of Costs and Economic Benefits ................ 296 Average Costs versus Incremental Costs ................... 297 18.4 Market versus Operational Control ........................ 298 18.5 Market Power Issues ...................................... 298 Price Caps ............................................... 299 18.6 The Future ............................................... 299 Chapter 19. The Professional and Industry Organizations ....... 301 19.1 The Professional Organizations ........................... 301 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) ................................................... 301 The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) ........... 303 American Society of Mechanical Engineers ................. 304 (ASME) and the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CIGRE .................................. 304 19.2 Industry Associations .................................... 304 NEMA ..................................................... 304 The Association of Edison Illuminating Companies (AEIC) ................................................... 305 The American Public Power Association (APPA) ............. 305 The Edison Electric Institute (EEI) ...................... 306 The Electricity Consumer Resource Council (ELCON) ........ 306 The National Rural Electric Cooperative Association (NRECA) .................................................. 307 Electric Power Supply Association (EPSA) ................. 307 The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) ....................... 308 19.3 Public Interest Groups ................................... 308 The National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC) .................................... 308 Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) ......................... 308 Public Citizen ........................................... 309 Public Interest Law Project .............................. 309 19.4 Research Organizations ................................... 309 The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) ............. 310 Other Research ........................................... 310 The National Regulatory Research Institute (NRRI) ........ 311 The Power Systems Engineering Research Center (PSERC) .... 311 Index ......................................................... 313