Preface ....................................................... vii
Acknowledgments ................................................ xi
Contributors ................................................. xiii
1 Liquid Crystals: A Unique Phase of Matter .................... 1
Gregory P. Crawford and Scott J. Woltman
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.1.1 Calamitic thermotropic liquid crystals ........... 2
1.1.2 Discotic liquid crystals ......................... 6
1.1.3 Polymer liquid crystals .......................... 9
1.1.4 Lyotopic liquid crystals ........................ 12
1.2 Basic Properties of Liquid Crystals .................... 15
1.2.1 Surface anchoring conditions .................... 16
1.2.2 Dielectric anisotropy ........................... 17
1.2.3 Optical anisotropy .............................. 19
1.2.4 Elasticity ...................................... 20
1.2.5 Basic liquid crystal configurations ............. 21
1.2.6 Optical modeling ................................ 22
1.2.7 Viscosity ....................................... 23
1.2.8 Eutectic mixtures ............................... 23
1.2.9 Non-planar confinement .......................... 24
1.3 Applications ........................................... 26
1.3.1 Liquid crystal display configurations ........... 26
1.3.2 Ferroelectric liquid crystals ................... 43
1.3.3 Reflective mode cholesteric LCDs ................ 47
1.3.4 Liquid crystal polymer dispersions .............. 49
1.3.5 Rotating configurations ......................... 58
1.4 Grating Applications ................................... 59
1.5 Discotic Applications .................................. 61
1.5.1 Thin film polarizers ............................ 61
1.5.2 Compensation films .............................. 63
1.5.3 Photovoltaic discotic liquid crystals ........... 65
1.5.4 Electron transport in discotic liquid
crystals ........................................ 65
1.5.5 Liquid crystal nanotubes ........................ 67
1.6 Conclusion ............................................. 68
Bibliography ........................................... 71
2 Medical Displays ............................................ 81
Frederick Y. Biga, Francois I. Luks, John W. McMurdy and
Gregory P. Crawford
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 81
2.2 Display Technology for Medical Imaging Systems ......... 85
2.2.1 Cathode ray tubes ............................... 86
2.2.2 Liquid crystal displays ......................... 87
2.3 Display Device Metrics ................................. 89
2.3.1 Luminance ....................................... 90
2.3.2 Contrast ratio .................................. 93
2.3.3 Grayscale ....................................... 94
2.3.4 Resolution ...................................... 95
2.3.5 Color ........................................... 97
2.3.6 Viewing angle ................................... 99
2.3.7 Veiling glare .................................. 106
2.3.8 Uniformity ..................................... 108
2.4 Integrated Medical Imaging Systems .................... 109
2.5 Optimization of Displays for Medical Applications ..... 109
2.6 Image Processing ...................................... 1ll
2.7 3-D displays .......................................... 112
2.7.1 Passive barrier 3-D displays ................... 113
2.7.2 3-D displays based on lenticular lenses ........ 115
2.7.3 Luminance modulated 3-D displays ............... 118
2.7.4 Active barrier 3-D displays .................... 119
2.7.5 Field-sequential LCD 3-D displays .............. 120
2.7.6 Volumetric 3-D displays ........................ 122
2.8 Liquid Crystal Thermography ........................... 123
2.9 Future Outlook ........................................ 128
2.9.1 Head mounted displays .......................... 129
2.9.2 Projection displays ............................ 131
2.9.3 Acousto-optic liquid crystal sensors ........... 132
2.9.4 Flexible displays .............................. 133
2.10 Conclusion ............................................ 134
Bibliography .......................................... 137
3 Liquid Crystals in Spectroscopy, Microscopy and
Hyperspectral Imaging ...................................... 149
John W. McMurdy, Gregory P. Crawford and Selim Suner
3.1 Introduction .......................................... 149
3.2 Diffraction Gratings and Tunable Filter
Spectrometers ......................................... 153
3.2.1 Dispersive devices ............................. 153
3.2.2 Nondispersive devices .......................... 157
3.2.3 Acousto-optic tunable filters .................. 160
3.2.4 Liquid crystal tunable filters ................. 162
3.2.5 Hyperspectral imaging in medicine .............. 175
3.2.6 Raman imaging with liquid crystals ............. 182
3.3 Fourier Transform Spectrometers ....................... 184
3.3.1 Operation and advantages ....................... 184
3.3.2 Michelson-based FT spectrometers ............... 186
3.3.3 Liquid crystal Fourier transform
spectrometers .................................. 187
3.3.4 Applications in medicine ....................... 197
3.4 Polarimeters and Polarization Microscopy .............. 197
3.4.1 Polarimetry and polarization microscopy ........ 197
3.4.2 Stokes parameters and the Mueller matrix ....... 199
3.4.3 Liquid crystals in polarimeters ................ 201
3.4.4 Polarimetric imaging and spectro-
polarimeters ................................... 203
3.4.5 Liquid crystals in polarization microscopy ..... 205
3.4.6 Polarimetry and polarization imaging in
biology ........................................ 208
3.5 Liquid Crystals Spatial Light Modulation in
Microscopy ............................................ 210
3.5.1 Phase contrast and interference microscopy ..... 210
3.5.2 Scanning microscopy ............................ 213
3.5.3 Liquid crystal shutters in microscopy .......... 217
3.5.4 Liquid crystal SLM in optical trapping ......... 217
3.5.5 Liquid crystal SLM in adaptive optics .......... 219
3.6 Conclusion ............................................ 223
Bibliography .......................................... 225
4 Liquid Crystal Biosensors .................................. 241
Maureen K. McCamley, Andrew W. Artenstein and, Gregory
P. Crawford
4.1 Background and Introduction ........................... 241
4.1.1 Scope of the problem ........................... 244
4.1.2 Engineering a solution ......................... 245
4.2 Current Diagnostic Techniques ......................... 247
4.2.1 Molecular diagnostics and micron1 uidics ....... 249
4.2.2 Quartz crystal microbalance assays ............. 251
4.2.3 Non-liquid crystal optical techniques .......... 253
4.3 Basic Biological Concepts ............................. 256
4.3.1 Phospholipids .................................. 256
4.3.2 Free surface interactions and surface
anchoring ...................................... 257
4.3.3 Liquid crystal confinement ..................... 258
4.4 Biosensors using Liquid Crystal Technology ............ 259
4.4.1 Background interfaces .......................... 260
4.4.2 Liquid crystal biocompatibility ................ 263
4.4.3 Other techniques for liquid crystal
biosensors ..................................... 267
4.4.4 Imaging of protein immobilization .............. 269
4.4.5 Virus detection using liquid crystals .......... 282
4.4.6 Bacterial detection using liquid crystals ...... 285
4.5 Conclusion ............................................ 286
Bibliography .......................................... 289
5 Liquid Crystal Lasers ...................................... 297
Scott J. Woltman
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 297
5.2 Dye Laser Systems and Photonic Crystals ............... 301
5.2.1 The distributed feedback laser ................. 301
5.2.2 Organic laser dyes and dye laser systems ....... 303
5.2.3 Photonic crystals .............................. 307
5.3 Liquid Crystal Lasers ................................. 310
5.3.1 Experimental setup for lasing .................. 311
5.3.2 Cholesteric liquid crystals .................... 312
5.3.3 Other liquid crystal configurations ............ 335
5.3.4 Liquid crystals in distributed feedback
lasers ......................................... 348
5.4 Liquid Crystal Lasers in Biology and Medicine ......... 351
5.4.1 Lasing in biology .............................. 352
5.4.2 Lasing in medicine ............................. 357
5.4.3 Conclusion ..................................... 360
Bibliography .......................................... 361
6 Biomimicking with Liquid Crystals .......................... 375
Scott J. Woltman, John W. McMurdy, Gregory P. Crawford
and Suraj P. Gorkhali
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 375
6.2 Color ................................................. 377
6.2.1 Structural color in nature ..................... 378
6.2.2 Liquid crystal structural color biomimicking ... 387
6.3 Anti-reflection ....................................... 396
6.3.1 Anti-reflection layers in nature ............... 396
6.3.2 Anti-reflection using liquid crystals .......... 398
6.4 Lenses ................................................ 400
6.4.1 Biological lenses .............................. 401
6.4.2 Liquid crystal lenses .......................... 403
6.5 Biotemplating ......................................... 409
6.6 Biomimetic Patterning ................................. 412
6.6.1 Optical patterning techniques .................. 412
6.6.2 Mechanical patterning techniques ............... 421
6.7 Natural Occuring Liquid Crystalline Phases ............ 426
6.8 Conclusion ............................................ 427
Bibliography .......................................... 429
7 Actuators and Delivery Systems ............................. 441
Leslie J. Shelton, Scott J. Woltman and Gregory P.
Crawford
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 442
7.2 Liquid Crystal Polymer Materials ...................... 444
7.2.1 Main-chain and side-chain liquid crystal
polymers ....................................... 444
7.2.2 Reactive mesogens .............................. 444
7.2.3 Elastomers ..................................... 453
7.2.4 Gels and hydrogels ............................. 459
7.2.5 Carbon nanotube doped materials ................ 465
7.3 Actuators ............................................. 467
7.3.1 Muscles ........................................ 468
7.3.2 Heart valves ................................... 469
7.3.3 Other actuator applications .................... 471
7.4 Drug Delivery Systems ................................. 473
7.4.1 Drug delivery systems with elastomers .......... 473
7.4.2 Drug delivery systems with hydrogels ........... 474
7.5 Liquid Crystalline Contact Lenses ..................... 476
7.6 Conclusion ............................................ 477
Bibliography .................................................. 479
Index ......................................................... 489
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