 | Introduction to information optics / ed. by F.T.S.Yu, S.Jutamulia, S.Yin. - San Diego: Academic Press, 2001. - xiv, 734 p.: ill. - (Optics and photonics). - Incl. bibl. ref. - Ind.: p.719-734. - ISBN 0-12-774811-3
|
Preface ...................................................... xiii
Chapter 1. Entropy Information and Optics ...................... 1
1.1. Information Transmission .................................. 2
1.2. Entropy Information ....................................... 4
1.З. Communication Channel ..................................... 9
1.3.1. Memoryless Discrete Channel ...................... 10
1.3.2. Continuous Channel ............................... 11
1.4. Band-limited Analysis .................................... 19
1.4.1. Degrees of Freedom ............................... 23
1.4.2. Gabor's Information Cell ......................... 25
1.5. Signal Analysis .......................................... 26
1.5.1. Signal Detection ................................. 28
1.5.2. Statistical Signal Detection ..................... 29
1.5.3. Signal Recovering ................................ 32
1.5.4. Signal Ambiguity ................................. 34
1.5.5. Wigner Distribution .............................. 39
1.6. Trading Information with Entropy ......................... 41
1.6.1. Demon Exorcist ................................... 42
1.6.2. Minimum Cost of Entropy .......................... 45
1.7. Accuracy and Reliability Observation ..................... 47
1.7.1. Uncertainty Observation .......................... 51
1.8. Quantum Mechanical Channel ............................... 54
1.8.1. Capacity of a Photon Channel ..................... 56
References ..................................................... 60
Exercises ...................................................... 60
Chapter 2. Signal Processing with Optics ...................... 67
2.1. Coherence Theory of Light ................................ 67
2.2. Processing under Coherent and Incoherent Illumination .... 72
2.3. Fresnel-Kirchhoff and Fourier Transformation ............. 76
2.3.1. Free Space Impulse Response ...................... 76
2.3.2. Fourier Transformation by Lenses ................. 77
2.4. Fourier Transform Processing ............................. 79
2.4.1. Fourier Domain Filter ............................ 79
2.4.2. Spatial Domain Filter ............................ 82
2.4.3. Processing with Fourier Domain Filters ........... 83
2.4.4. Processing with Joint Transformation ............. 85
2.4.5. Hybrid Optical Processing ........................ 88
2.5. Image Processing with Optics ............................. 89
2.5.1. Correlation Detection ............................ 89
2.5.2. Image Restoration ................................ 93
2.5.3. Image Subtraction ................................ 98
2.5.4. Broadband Signal Processing ...................... 98
2.6. Algorithms for Processing ............................... 103
2.6.1. Mellin-Transform Processing ..................... 104
2.6.2. Circular Harmonic Processing .................... 105
2.6.3. Homomorphic Processing .......................... 107
2.6.4. Synthetic Discriminant Algorithm ................ 108
2.6.5. Simulated Annealing Algorithm ................... 112
2.7. Processing with Photorefractive Optics .................. 115
2.7.1. Photorefractive Effect and Materials ............ 115
2.7.2. Wave Mixing and Multiplexing .................... 118
2.7.3. Bragg Diffraction Limitation .................... 121
2.7.4. Angular and Wavelength Selectivities ............ 122
2.7.5. Shift-Invariant Limited Correlators ............. 125
2.8. Processing with Incoherent Light ........................ 131
2.8.1. Exploitation of Coherence ....................... 131
2.8.2. Signal Processing with White Light .............. 135
2.8.3. Color Image Preservation and Pseudocoloring ..... 138
2.9. Processing with Neural Networks ......................... 141
2.9.1. Optical Neural Networks ......................... 142
2.9.2. Holpfield Model ................................. 143
2.9.3. Inpattern Association Model ..................... 144
References .................................................... 147
Exercises ..................................................... 148
Chapter 3. Communication with Optics ......................... 163
3.1. Motivation of Fiber-Optic Communication ................. 163
3.2. Light Propagation in Optical Fibers ..................... 164
3.2.1. Geometric Optics Approach ....................... 164
3.2.2. Wave-Optics Approach ............................ 164
3.2.3. Other Issues Related to Light Propagating in
Optical Fiber ................................... 168
3.3. Critical Components ..................................... 184
3.3.1. Optical Transmitters for Fiber-Optic
Communications - Semiconductor Lasers ........... 184
3.3.2. Optical Receivers for Fiber-Optic
Communications .................................. 188
3.3.3. Other Components Used in Fiber-Optic
Communications .................................. 192
3.4. Fiber-Optic Networks .................................... 192
3.4.1. Types of Fiber-Optic Networks Classified by
Physical Size ................................... 193
3.4.2. Physical Topologies and Routing Topologies
Relevant to Fiber-Optic Networks ................ 193
3.4.3. Wavelength Division Multiplexed Optics
Networks ........................................ 193
3.4.4. Testing Fiber-Optic Networks .................... 195
References .................................................... 198
Exercises ..................................................... 198
Chapter 4. Switching with Optics ............................. 201
4.1. Figures of Merits for an Optical Switch ................. 202
4.2. All-Optical Switches .................................... 203
4.2.1. Optical Nonlinearity ............................ 205
4.2.2. Etalon Switching Devices ........................ 205
4.2.3. Nonlinear Directional Coupler ................... 208
4.2.4. Nonlinear Interferometric Switches .............. 211
4.3. Fast Electro-optic Switches: Modulators ................. 219
4.3.1. Direct Modulation of Semiconductor Lasers ....... 220
4.3.2. External Electro-optic Modulators ............... 225
4.3.3. MEMS Switches Without Moving Parts .............. 236
4.4. Optical Switching Based on MEMS ......................... 236
4.4.1. MEMS Fabrications ............................... 237
4.4.2. Electrostatic Actuators ......................... 238
4.4.3. MEMS Optical Switches ........................... 242
4.5. Summary ................................................. 247
References .............................................. 248
Exercises ............................................... 250
Chapter 5. Transformation with Optics ........................ 255
5.1. Huygens-Fresnel Diffraction ............................. 256
5.2. Fresnel Transform ....................................... 257
5.2.1. Definition ...................................... 257
5.2.2. Optical Fresnel Transform ....................... 257
5.3. Fourier Transform ....................................... 259
5.4. Wavelet Transform ....................................... 260
5.4.1. Wavelets ........................................ 260
5.4.2. Time-frequency Joint Representation ............. 261
5.4.3. Properties of Wavelets .......................... 262
5.5. Physical Wavelet Transform .............................. 264
5.5.1. Electromagnetic Wavelet ......................... 264
5.5.2. Electromagnetic Wavelet Transform ............... 266
5.5.3. Electromagnetic Wavelet Transform and Huygens
Diffraction ..................................... 260
5.6. Wigner Distribution Function ............................ 270
5.6.1. Definition ...................................... 270
5.6.2. Inverse Transform ............................... 271
5.6.3. Geometrical Optics Interpretation ............... 271
5.6.4. Wigner Distribution Optics ...................... 272
5.7. Fractional Fourier Transform ............................ 275
5.7.1. Definition ...................................... 275
5.7.2. Fractional Fourier Transform and Fresnel
Diffraction ..................................... 277
5.8. Hankel Transform ........................................ 279
5.8.1. Fourier Transform in Polar Coordinate System .... 279
5.8.2. Hankel Transform ................................ 281
5.9. Radon Transform ......................................... 282
5.9.1. Definition ...................................... 282
5.9.2. Image Reconstruction ............................ 283
5.10. Geometric Transform ..................................... 284
5.10.1. Basic Geometric Transformations ................. 288
5.10.2. Generalized Geometric Transformation ............ 288
5.10.3. Optical Implementation .......................... 289
5.11. Hough Transform ......................................... 292
5.11.1. Definition ...................................... 292
5.11.2. Optical Hough Transform ......................... 293
References .................................................... 294
Exercises ..................................................... 295
Chapter 6. Interconnection with Optics ....................... 299
6.1. Introduction ............................................ 299
6.2. Polymer Waveguides ...................................... 303
6.2.1. Polymeric Materials for Waveguide Fabrication ... 303
6.2.2. Fabrication of Low-Loss Polymeric Waveguides .... 305
6.3.2. Waveguide Loss Measurement ...................... 310
6.3. Thin-Film Waveguide Couplers ............................ 312
6.3.1. Surface-Normal Grating Coupler Design and
Fabrication ..................................... 312
6.3.2. 45° Surface-Normal Micromirror Couplers ......... 326
6.4. Integration of Thin-Film Photodetectors ................. 331
6.5. Integration of Vertical Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers
(VCSELs) ................................................ 334
6.6. Optical Clock Signal Distribution ....................... 339
6.7. Polymer Waveguide-Based Optical Bus Structure ........... 343
6.7.1. Optical Equivalent for Electronic Bus Logic
Design .......................................... 345
6.8. Summary ................................................. 348
References .................................................... 349
Exercises ..................................................... 351
Chapter 7. Pattern Recognition with Optics ................... 355
7.1. Basic Architectures ..................................... 356
7.1.1. Correlators ..................................... 356
7.1.2. Neural Networks ................................. 357
7.1.3. Hybrid Optical Architectures .................... 357
7.1.4. Robustness of JTC ............................... 362
7.2. Recognition by Correlation Detections ................... 364
7.2.1. Nonconventional Joint-Transform Detection ....... 364
7.2.2. Nonzero-order Joint-Transform Detection ......... 368
7.2.3. Position-Encoding Joint-Transform Detection ..... 370
7.2.4. Phase-Representation Joint-Transform
Detection ....................................... 371
7.2.5. Iterative Joint-Transform Detection ............. 372
7.3. Polychromatic Pattern Recognition ....................... 375
7.3.1. Detection with Temporal Fourier-Domain
Filters ......................................... 376
7.3.2. Detection with Spatial-Domain Filters ........... 377
7.4. Target Tracking ......................................... 380
7.4.1. Autonomous Tracking ............................. 380
7.4.2. Data Association Tracking ....................... 382
7.5. Pattern Recognition Using Composite Filtering ........... 387
7.5.1. Performance Capacity ............................ 388
7.5.2. Quantization Performance ........................ 390
7.6. Pattern Classification .................................. 394
7.6.1. Nearest Neighbor Classifiers .................... 395
7.6.2. Optical Implementation .......................... 398
7.7. Pattern Recognition with Photorefractive Optics ......... 401
7.7.1. Detection by Phase Conjugation .................. 401
7.7.2. Wavelength-Multiplexed Matched Filtering ........ 404
7.7.3. Wavelet Matched Filtering ....................... 407
7.8. Neural Pattern Recognition .............................. 411
7.8.1. Recognition by Supervised Learning .............. 412
7.8.2. Recognition by Unsupervised Learning ............ 414
7.8.3. Polychromatic Neural Networks ................... 418
References .................................................... 422
Exercises ..................................................... 423
Chapter 8. Information Storage with Optics ................... 435
8.1. Digital Information Storage ............................. 435
8.2. Upper Limit of Optical Storage Density .................. 436
8.3 Optical Storage Media ................................... 438
8.3.1. Photographic Film ............................... 438
8.3.2. Dichromated Gelatin ............................. 439
8.3.3. Photopolymers ................................... 439
8.3.4. Photoresists .................................... 440
8.3.5. Thermoplastic Film .............................. 440
8.3.6. Photorefractive Materials ....................... 441
8.3.7. Photochromic Materials .......................... 442
8.3.8. Electron-Trapping Materials ..................... 442
8.3.9. Two Photon-Absorption Materials ................. 443
8.3.10. Bacteriorhodospin ............................... 444
8.3.11. Photochemical Hole Burning ...................... 444
8.3.12. Magneto-optic Materials ......................... 445
8.3.13. Phase-Change Materials .......................... 446
8.4. Bit-Pattern Optical Storage ............................. 446
8.4.1. Optical Tape .................................... 447
8.4.2. Optical Disk .................................... 447
8.4.3. Multilayer Optical Disk ......................... 448
8.4.4. Photon-Gating 3-D Optical Storage ............... 449
8.4.5. Stacked-Layer 3-D Optical Storage ............... 451
8.4.6. Photochemical Hole-Burning 3-D Storage .......... 454
8.5. Holographic Optical Storage ............................. 454
8.5.1. Principle of Holography ......................... 455
8.5.2. Plane Holographic Storage ....................... 456
8.5.3. Stacked Holograms for 3-D Optical Storage ....... 458
8.5.4. Volume Holographic 3-D Optical Storage .......... 460
8.6. Near Field Optical Storage .............................. 461
8.7. Concluding Remarks ...................................... 461
References .................................................... 465
Exercises ..................................................... 468
Chapter 9. Computing with Optics ............................. 475
9.1. Introduction ............................................ 476
9.2. Parallel Optical Logic and Architectures ................ 477
9.2.1. Optical Logic ................................... 477
9.2.2. Space-Variant Optical Logic ..................... 481
9.2.3. Programmable Logic Array ........................ 481
9.2.4. Parallel Array Logic ............................ 485
9.2.5. Symbolic Substitution ........................... 486
9.2.6. Content-Addressable Memory ...................... 488
9.3. Number Systems and Basic Operations ..................... 489
9.3.1. Operations with Binary Number Systems ........... 489
9.3.2. Operations with Nonbinary Number Systems ........ 499
9.4. Parallel Signed-Digit Arithmetic ........................ 501
9.4.1. Generalized Signed-Digit Number Systems ......... 501
9.4.2. MSD Arithmetic .................................. 503
9.4.3. TSD Arithmetic .................................. 530
9.4.4. QSD Arithmetic .................................. 534
9.5. Conversion between Different Number Systems ............. 543
9.5.1. Conversion between Signed-Digit and Complement
Number Systems .................................. 544
9.5.2. Conversion between NSD and Negabinary Number
Systems ......................................... 546
9.6. Optical Implementation .................................. 549
9.6.1. Symbolic Substitution Implemented by Matrix
Vector Operation ................................ 549
9.6.2. SCAM-Based Incoherent Correlator for QSD
Addition ........................................ 551
9.6.3. Optical Logic Array Processor for Parallel NSD
Arithmetic ...................................... 558
9.7. Summary ................................................. 560
References .............................................. 562
Exercises ............................................... 569
Chapter 10. Sensing with Optics ............................... 571
10.1. Introduction ............................................ 571
10.2. A Brief Review of Types of Fiber-Optic Sensors .......... 572
10.2.1. Intensity-Based Fiber-Optic Sensors ............. 572
10.2.2. Polarization-Based Fiber-Optic Sensors .......... 575
10.2.3. Phase-Based Fiber Optic Sensors ................. 583
10.2.4. Frequency (or Wavelength)-Based Fiber-Optic
Sensors ......................................... 587
10.3. Distributed Fiber-Optic Sensors ......................... 589
10.3.1. Intrinsic Distributed Fiber-optic Sensors ....... 589
10.3.2. Quasi-distributed Fiber-optic Sensors ........... 600
10.4. Summary ................................................. 612
References .............................................. 613
Exercises ............................................... 615
Chapter 11. Information Display with Optics ................... 617
11.1. Introduction ............................................ 617
11.2. Information Display Using Acousto-optic Spatial Light
Modulators .............................................. 618
11.2.1. The Acousto-optic Effect ........................ 618
11.2.2. Intensity Modulation of Laser ................... 625
11.2.3. Deflection of Laser ............................. 628
11.2.4. Laser TV Display Using Acousto-optic Devices .... 629
11.3. 3-D Holographic Display ................................. 632
11.3.1. Principles of Holography ........................ 632
11.3.2. Optical Scanning Holography ..................... 638
11.3.3. Synthetic Aperture Holography ................... 640
11.4. Information Display Using Electro-optic Spatial Light
Modulators .............................................. 643
11.4.1. The Electro-optic Effect ........................ 643
11.4.2. Electrically Addressed Spatial Light
Modulators ...................................... 647
11.4.3. Optically Addressed Spatial Light Modulators .... 650
11.5. Concluding Remarks ...................................... 661
References .............................................. 661
Exercises ............................................... 664
Chapter 12. Networking with Optics ............................ 667
12.1. Background .............................................. 667
12.2. Optical Network Elements ................................ 671
12.2.1. Optical Fibers .................................. 671
12.2.2. Optical Amplifiers .............................. 673
12.2.3. Wavelength Division Multiplexer/Demultiplexer ... 678
12.2.4. Transponder ..................................... 687
12.2.5. Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer .................... 689
12.2.6. Optical Cross-Connect ........................... 691
12.2.7. Optical Monitoring .............................. 694
12.3. Design of Optical Transport Network ..................... 696
12.3.1. Optical Fiber Dispersion Limit .................. 696
12.3.2. Optical Fiber Nonlinearity Limit ................ 697
12.3.3. System Design Examples .......................... 701
12.4. Applications and Future Development of Optical
Networks ................................................ 704
12.4.1. Long-haul Backbone Networks ..................... 704
12.4.2. Metropolitan and Access Networks ................ 709
12.4.3. Future Development .............................. 711
References .................................................... 714
Exercises ..................................................... 715
Index ......................................................... 719
|
|
