General Anatomy
1 Human Phylogeny and Ontogeny
1.1 Human Phylogeny ......................................... 2
1.2 Human Ontogeny: Overview, Fertilization, and Earliest
Developmental Stages .................................... 4
1.3 Gastrulation, Neurulation, and Somite Formation ......... 6
1.4 Development of the Fetal Membranes and Placenta ......... 8
1.5 Development of the Pharyngeal (Branchial) Arches
in Humans .............................................. 10
1.6 Early Embryonic Circulation and the Development
of Major Blood Vessels ................................. 12
1.7 Bone Development and Remodeling ........................ 14
1.8 Ossification of the Limbs .............................. 16
1.9 Development and Position of the Limbs .................. 18
2 Overview of the Human Body
2.1 The Human Body (Proportions, Surface Areas, and Body
Weights) ............................................... 20
2.2 The Structural Design of the Human Body ................ 22
3 Surface Anatomy of the Body, Landmarks and Reference Lines
3.1 Terms of Location and Direction, Cardinal Planes
and Axes ............................................... 24
3.2 Body Surface Anatomy ................................... 26
3.3 Body Surface Contours and Palpable Bony Prominences .... 28
3.4 Landmarks and Reference Lines on the Human Body ........ 30
3.5 Body Regions (Regional Anatomy) ........................ 32
4 The Bones and Joints
4.1 The Bony Skeleton and the Structure of Tubular Bones ... 34
4.2 Continuous and Discontinuous Joints: Synarthroses and'
Diarthroses ............................................ 36
4.3 Basic Principles of Joint Mechanics .................... 38
5 The Muscles
5.1 The Skeletal Muscles ................................... 40
5.2 The Tendons and Mechanisms That Assist Muscle
Function ............................................... 42
6 The Vessels
6.1 Overview of the Human Cardiovascular System ............ 44
6.2 The Structure of Arteries and Veins .................... 46
6.3 The Terminal Vascular Bed .............................. 48
7 The Lymphatic System and Glands
7.1 The Human Lymphatic System ............................. 50
7.2 Exocrine and Endocrine Glands .......................... 52
8 General Neuroanatomy
8.1 Development of the Central Nervous System (CNS) ........ 54
8.2 Neural Crest Derivatives and the Development of
the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) .................... 56
8.3 Topography and Structure of the Nervous System ......... 58
8.4 Cells of the Nervous System ............................ 60
8.5 Structure of a Spinal Cord Segment ..................... 62
8.6 Sensory Innervation: An Overview ....................... 64
8.7 Dermatomes and Cutaneous Nerve Territories ............. 66
8.8 Motor Innervation ...................................... 68
8.9 Differences between the Central and Peripheral
Nervous Systems ........................................ 70
8.10 The Autonomic Nervous System ........................... 72
Trunk Wall
1 Bones, Ligaments, and Joints
1.1 The Skeleton of the Trunk .............................. 76
1.2 The Bony Spinal Column ................................. 78
1.3 Development of the Spinal Column ....................... 80
1.4 The Structure of a Vertebra ............................ 82
1.5 The Cervical Spine ..................................... 84
1.6 The Thoracic Spine ..................................... 86
1.7 The Lumbar Spine ....................................... 88
1.8 The Sacrum and Coccyx .................................. 90
1.9 The Intervertebral Disk: Structure and Function ........ 92
1.10 The Ligaments of the Spinal Column: Overview and
Thoracolumbar Region ................................... 94
1.11 Overview of the Ligaments of the Cervical Spine ........ 96
1.12 The Ligaments of the Upper Cervical Spine (Atlanto-
occipital and Atlantoaxial Joints) ..................... 98
1.13 The Intervertebral Facet Joints, Motion Segments,
and Range of Motion in Different Spinal Regions ....... 100
1.14 The Uncovertebral Joints of the Cervical Spine ........ 102
1.15 Degenerative Changes in the Lumbar Spine .............. 104
1.16 The Thoracic Skeleton ................................. 106
1.17 The Sternum and Ribs .................................. 108
1.18 The Costovertebral Joints and Thoracic Movements ...... 110
1.19 The Bony Pelvis ....................................... 112
1.20 The Pelvic Ligaments and Pelvic Measurements .......... 114
1.21 The Sacroiliac Joint .................................. 116
2 Musculature: Functional Croups
2.1 The Muscles of the Trunk Wall, Their Origin and
Function .............................................. 118
2.2 The Intrinsic Back Muscles: Lateral Tract ............. 120
2.3 Medial Tract .......................................... 122
2.4 The Short Nuchal and Craniovertebral Joint Muscles
and the Prevertebral Muscle ........................... 124
2.5 The Muscles of the Abdominal Wall: Lateral and
Oblique Muscles ....................................... 126
2.6 Anterior and Posterior Muscles ........................ 128
2.7 The Functions of the Abdominal Wall Muscles ........... 130
2.8 The Muscles of the Thoracic Cage (Intercostales,
Subcostales, Scaleni, and Transversus thoracis) ....... 132
2.9 The Diaphragm ......................................... 134
2.10 The Muscles of the Pelvic Floor (Pelvic Diaphragm,
Urogenital Diaphragm, Sphincter and Erectile
Muscles) .............................................. 136
3 Musculature: Topographical Anatomy
3.1 The Back Muscles and Thoracolumbar Fascia ............. 138
3.2 The Intrinsic Back Muscles: Lateral and Medial
Tracts ................................................ 140
3.3 Short Nuchal Muscles .................................. 142
3.4 The Chest Wall Muscles and Endothoracic Fascia ........ 144
3.5 Thoracoabdominal Junction: The Diaphragm .............. 146
3.6 The Lateral and Anterior Abdominal Wall Muscles ....... 148
3.7 Structure of the Abdominal Wall and Rectus Sheath ..... 150
3.8 The Pelvic Floor Muscles: Overview of the Perineal
Region and Superficial Fasciae ........................ 152
3.9 Structure of the Pelvic Floor and Pelvic Spaces:
Female versus Male .................................... 154
3.10 The Muscles of the Female Pelvic Floor and Wall ....... 156
3.11 The Pelvic Floor Muscles: The Levator ani ............. 158
3.12 Their Relation to Organs and Vessels in Males and
Females ............................................... 160
4 Neurovascular Systems: Forms and Relations
4.1 The Arteries .......................................... 162
4.2 The Veins ............................................. 164
4.3 The Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Nodes ................. 166
4.4 The Nerves ............................................ 168
5 Neurovascular Systems: Topographical Anatomy
5.1 Anterior Trunk Wall: Surface Anatomy and Superficial
Nerves and Vessels .................................... 170
5.2 Posterior Trunk Wall: Surface Anatomy and
Superficial Nerves and Vessels ........................ 172
5.3 Posterior Trunk Wall: Posterior View .................. 174
5.4 Anterior View ......................................... 176
5.5 Anterior Trunk Wall: Overview and Location of
Clinically Important Nerves and Vessels ............... 178
5.6 Nerves, Blood Vessels, and Lymphatics in the Female
Breast ................................................ 180
5.7 The Inguinal Canal .................................... 182
5.8 Anterior Abdominal Wall: Anatomy and Weak Spots ....... 184
5.9 Inguinal and Femoral Hernias .......................... 186
5.10 Rare External Hernias ................................. 188
5.11 Diagnosis and Treatment of Hernias .................... 190
5.12 Development of the External Genitalia ................. 192
5.13 Male External Genitalia: Testicular Descent and
the Spermatic Cord .................................... 194
5.14 The Testis and Epididymis ............................. 196
5.15 The Fasciae and Erectile Tissues of the Penis ......... 198
5.16 Nerves and Vessels of the Penis ....................... 200
5.17 Female External Genitalia: Overview and Episiotomy .... 202
5.18 Neurovascular Structures, Erectile Tissues,
Erectile Muscles, and Vestibule ....................... 204
Upper Limb
1 Bones, Ligaments, and Joints
1.1 The Upper Limb as a Whole ............................. 208
1.2 Integration of the Shoulder Girdle into the Skeleton
of the Trunk .......................................... 210
1.3 The Bones of the Shoulder Girdle ...................... 212
1.4 The Bones of the Upper Limb: The Humerus .............. 214
1.5 Torsion of the Humerus ................................ 216
1.6 The Radius and Ulna ................................... 218
1.7 The Articular Surfaces of the Radius and Ulna ......... 220
1.8 The Hand .............................................. 222
1.9 The Carpal Bones ...................................... 224
1.10 The Joints of the Shoulder: Overview,
Clavicular joints ..................................... 226
1.11 Ligaments of the Clavicular and
Scapulothoracic joints ................................ 228
1.12 The Capsule and Ligaments of the Glenohumeral Joint ... 230
1.13 The Subacromial Space ................................. 232
1.14 The Subacromial Bursa and Subdeltoid Bursa ............ 234
1.15 Movements of the Shoulder Girdle and Shoulder Joint ... 236
1.16 The Elbow Joint as a Whole ............................ 238
1.17 Capsule and Ligaments ................................. 240
1.18 The Forearm: Proximal and Distal Radioulnar Joints .... 242
1.19 Movements of the Elbow and Radioulnar Joints .......... 244
1.20 The Ligaments of the Hand ............................. 246
1.21 The Carpal Tunnel ..................................... 248
1.22 The Ligaments of the Fingers .......................... 250
1.23 The Carpometacarpal Joint of the Thumb ................ 252
1.24 Movements of the Hand and Finger joints ............... 254
2 Musculature: Functional Groups
2.1 Functional Muscle Groups .............................. 256
2.2 The Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle: Trapezius,
Sternocleidomastoid, and Omohyoid ..................... 258
2.3 Serratus anterior, Subclavius, Pectoralis minor,
Levator scapulae, and Rhomboid major and minor ........ 260
2.4 The Rotator Cuff ...................................... 262
2.5 The Deltoid ........................................... 264
2.6 Latissimus dorsi and Teres major ...................... 266
2.7 Pectoralis major and Coracobrachialis ................. 268
2.8 The Muscles of the Arm: Biceps brachii and
Brachialis ............................................ 270
2.9 Triceps brachii and Anconeus .......................... 272
2.10 The Muscles of the Forearm: The Superficial and Deep
Flexors ............................................... 274
2.11 The Radialis Muscles .................................. 276
2.12 The Superficial and Deep Extensors .................... 278
2.13 The Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand: The Thenar and
Hypothenar Muscles .................................... 280
2.14 Lumbricals and Interossei (Metacarpal Muscles) ........ 282
3 Musculature: Topographical Anatomy
3.1 The Posterior Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle
and Shoulder joint .................................... 284
3.2 The Posterior Muscles of the Shoulder joint and Arm ... 286
3.3 The Anterior Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle
and Shoulder joint .................................... 288
3.4 The Anterior Muscles of the Shoulder joint and Arm .... 290
3.5 The Anterior Muscles of the Forearm ................... 292
3.6 The Posterior Muscles of the Forearm .................. 294
3.7 Cross Sections of the Arm and Forearm ................. 296
3.8 The Tendon Sheaths of the Hand ........................ 298
3.9 The Dorsal Digital Expansion .......................... 300
3.10 The Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand: Superficial
Layer ................................................. 302
3.11 Middle Layer .......................................... 304
3.12 Deep Layer ............................................ 306
4 Neurovascular Systems: Forms and Relations
4.1 The Arteries .......................................... 308
4.2 The Veins ............................................. 310
4.3 The Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Nodes ................. 312
4.4 The Brachial Plexus: Structure ........................ 314
4.5 Supraclavicular Part .................................. 316
4.6 Infraclavicular Part-Overview and Short Branches ...... 318
4.7 Infraclavicular Part-The Musculocutaneous Nerve
and Axillary Nerve .................................... 320
4.8 Infraclavicular Part-The Radial Nerve ................. 322
4.9 Infraclavicular Part-The Ulnar Nerve .................. 324
4.10 Infraclavicular Part-The Median Nerve ................. 326
5 Neurovascular Systems: Topographical Anatomy
5.1 Surface Anatomy and Superficial Nerves and Vessels:
Anterior View ......................................... 328
5.2 Posterior View ........................................ 330
5.3 The Shoulder Region: Anterior View .................... 332
5.4 The Axilla: Anterior Wall ............................. 334
5.5 Posterior Wall ........................................ 336
5.6 The Anterior Brachial Region .......................... 338
5.7 The Shoulder Region: Posterior and Superior Views ..... 340
5.8 The Posterior Brachial Region ......................... 342
5.9 The Elbow (Cubital Region) ............................ 344
5.10 The Anterior Forearm Region ........................... 346
5.11 The Posterior Forearm Region and the Dorsum of
the Hand .............................................. 348
5.12 The Palm of the Hand: Epifascial Nerves and Vessels ... 350
5.13 Vascular Supply ....................................... 352
5.14 The Carpal Tunnel ..................................... 354
5.15 The Ulnar Tunnel and Anterior Carpal Region ........... 356
Lower Limb
1 Bones, Ligaments, and Joints
1.1 The Lower Limb: General Aspects ....................... 360
1.2 The Anatomical and Mechanical Axes of the Lower
Limb .................................................. 362
1.3 The Bones of the Pelvic Girdle ........................ 364
1.4 The Femur: Importance of the Femoral Neck Angle ....... 366
1.5 The Femoral Head and Deformities of the Femoral
Neck .................................................. 368
1.6 The Patella ........................................... 370
1.7 The Tibia and Fibula .................................. 372
1.8 The Bones of the Foot from the Dorsal and Plantar
Views ................................................. 374
1.9 The Bones of the Foot from the Lateral and Medial
Views; Accessory Tarsal Bones ......................... 376
1.10 The Hip Joint: Articulating Bones ..................... 378
1.11 The Ligaments of the Hip Joint: Stabilization of
the Femoral Head ...................................... 380
1.12 Nutrition of the Femoral Head ......................... 382
1.13 Cross-Sectional Anatomy of the Hip Joint .............. 384
1.14 The Movements and Biomechanics of the Hip Joint ....... 386
1.15 The Development of the Hip Joint ...................... 388
1.16 The Knee Joint: Articulating Bones .................... 390
1.17 The Ligaments of the Knee Joint: An Overview .......... 392
1.18 The Cruciform and Collateral Ligaments ................ 394
1.19 The Menisci ........................................... 396
1.20 The Movements of the Knee Joint ....................... 398
1.21 Capsule and Joint Cavity .............................. 400
1.22 The Joints of the Foot: Overview of the Articulating
Bones and Joints ...................................... 402
1.23 Articular Surfaces .................................... 404
1.24 The Talocrural and Subtalar Joints .................... 406
1.25 The Ligaments of the Foot ............................. 408
1.26 The Movements of the Foot ............................. 410
1.27 Overview of the Plantar Vault and the Transverse
Arch .................................................. 412
1.28 The Longitudinal Arch of the Foot ..................... 414
1.29 The Sesamoid Bones and Deformities of the Toes ........ 416
1.30 Human Gait ............................................ 418
2 Musculature: Functional Croups
2.1 The Muscles of the Lower Limb: Classification ......... 420
2.2 The Hip and Gluteal Muscles: The Inner Hip Muscles .... 422
2.3 The Outer Hip Muscles ................................. 424
2.4 The Adductor Group .................................... 426
2.5 The Anterior Thigh Muscles: The Extensor Group ........ 428
2.6 The Flexor Group ...................................... 430
2.7 The Leg Muscles: The Anterior and Lateral
Compartments (Extensor and Fibularis Group) ........... 432
2.8 The Posterior Compartment (Superficial Flexor
Group) ................................................ 434
2.9 The Posterior Compartment (Deep Flexor Group) ......... 436
2.10 The Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot: The Dorsum and
Sole of the Foot (Lateral and Medial Compartments) .... 438
2.11 The Sole of the Foot (Central Compartment) ............ 440
3 Musculature: Topographical Anatomy
3.1 The Muscles of the Thigh Hip and Gluteal Region from
the Medial and Anterior Views ......................... 442
3.2 Hip and Gluteal Region from the Anterior View;
Origins and Insertions ................................ 444
3.3 Hip and Gluteal Region from the Lateral and
Posterior Views ....................................... 446
3.4 Hip and Gluteal Region from the Posterior View;
Origins and Insertions ................................ 448
3.5 The Muscles of the Leg from the Lateral and Anterior
Views; Origins and Insertions ......................... 450
3.6 from the Posterior View; Origins and Insertions ....... 452
3.7 The Tendon Sheaths and Retinacula of the Foot ......... 454
3.8 The Intrinsic Foot Muscles from the Plantar View;
the Plantar Aponeurosis ............................... 456
3.9 The Intrinsic Foot Muscles from the Plantar View ...... 458
3.10 Origins and Insertions 460
3.11 Cross-Sectional Anatomy of the Thigh, Leg, and Foot ... 462
4 Neurovascular Systems: Forms and Relations
4.1 The Arteries .......................................... 464
4.2 The Veins ............................................. 466
4.3 The Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Nodes ................. 468
4.4 The Structure of the Lumbosacral Plexus ............... 470
4.5 The Nerves of the Lumbar Plexus: The Iliohypogastric,
Ilioinguinal, Genitofemoral, and Lateral Femoral
Cutaneous Nerves ...................................... 472
4.6 The Obturator and Femoral Nerves ...................... 474
4.7 The Nerves of the Sacral Plexus: The Superior
Gluteal, Inferior Gluteal, and Posterior Femoral
Cutaneous Nerves ...................................... 476
4.8 The Sciatic Nerve (Overview and Sensory
Distribution) ......................................... 478
4.9 The Sciatic Nerve (Course and Motor Distribution) ..... 480
4.10 The Pudendal and Coccygeal Nerves ..................... 482
5 Neurovascular Systems: Topographical Anatomy
5.1 Surface Anatomy and Superficial Nerves and Vessels:
Anterior View ......................................... 484
5.2 Posterior View ........................................ 486
5.3 The Anterior Femoral Region Including the Femoral
Triangle .............................................. 488
5.4 Arterial Supply to the Thigh .......................... 490
5.5 The Gluteal Region: Overview of its Vessels and
Nerves ................................................ 492
5.6 The Sciatic Foramen and Sciatic Nerve ................. 494
5.7 The Ischioanal Fossa .................................. 496
5.8 The Pudendal Canal and Perineal Region (Urogenital
and Anal Region) ...................................... 498
5.9 The Posterior Thigh Region and Popliteal Region ....... 500
5.10 The Posterior Leg Region and the Tarsal Tunnel ........ 502
5.11 The Sole of the Foot .................................. 504
5.12 The Anterior Leg Region and Dorsum of the Foot:
Cutaneous Innervation ................................. 506
5.13 The Arteries of the Dorsum of the Foot ................ 508
Appendix
References .................................................... 513
Index ......................................................... 515
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