Frequently used Abbreviations and Notations ................ xxxiii
1 First Measurements of Cosmic Ray Geomagnetic Effects
and the Problem of CR Nature ................................. 1
1.1 The First Measurements of CR Latitude Effect in
Expeditions from Holland to Java and Problems in their
Interpretation .......................................... 1
1.2 The First Correct Explanation of CR Latitude Survey
Results and Nature of CR; Compton and Millikan's CR
Latitude Surveys ........................................ 2
1.3 The First Determination of Planetary Distribution of
CR Intensity at Sea Level; Longitude Geomagnetic
Effect .................................................. 4
1.4 The First Measurements of the CR Latitude Effect
in the Stratosphere ..................................... 6
1.5 East-West CR Geomagnetic Effect and Determination
of the Sign of Primary Charged Particles ................ 6
2 Cosmic Rays in the Dipole Geomagnetic Field .................. 9
2.1 Dipole Approximation of Geomagnetic Field and
Geomagnetic Equator ..................................... 9
2.1.1 Polar Aurora and Störmer's Theory ................ 9
2.1.2 Equations for Particle Moving in Dipole Field
and their Integrals .............................. 9
2.2 Principles of Störmer's Theory ......................... 12
2.3 Störmer's Cone of Forbidden Trajectories ............... 15
2.4 Lemaitre and Vallarta CR Allowed Cones in the Dipole
Geomagnetic Field; Existence of Penumbra Region ........ 17
2.5 Drift Hamiltonian for a Dipole Magnetic Field .......... 18
2.5.1 The Matter of Problem ........................... 18
2.5.2 Drift Hamiltonian ............................... 18
2.5.3 Three Cases of the Choice of Parameters ......... 19
2.5.4 The Conditions for Drift Approximation .......... 21
2.6 Symplectic Method for the Tracing of CR Particle
Motion in a Dipole Magnetic Field ...................... 21
2.6.1 The Matter of Problem ........................... 21
2.6.2 Hamiltonian Description of Energetic Charged
Particle Motion in a Dipole Magnetic Field ...... 23
2.6.3 Symplectic Integration Method of Calculations ... 25
2.6.4 Comparison with the Standard Runge-Kutta
Method .......................................... 27
2.6.5 Main Results and Discussion ..................... 28
2.7 Effective Cutoff Rigidity in Dipole Approximation ...... 29
2.8 Checking of Dipole Model by Measurements of CR
Equator ................................................ 32
2.9 The Checking of Dipole Model by Direct Cutoff
Rigidity Measurements .................................. 34
2.10 Checking of Dipole Model by Data on CR Variations ...... 35
2.11 Initial Interpretations of the Differences Between CR
and Geomagnetic Equators ............................... 35
2.12 Impact Zones, Asymptotic Directions, and Acceptance
Cones in the Dipole Magnetic Field ..................... 36
2.13 Seasonal and Daily Variation of the Position of
Impact Zones in Dipole Approximation ................... 41
2.14 Asymptotic Accepted Cones and Expected Counting
Rates of CR Detectors; Focusing Properties of
Geomagnetic Field ...................................... 42
3 Cosmic Rays in the Real Geomagnetic Field ................... 51
3.1 Inner and Outer Sources of the Real Geomagnetic
Field; Changing in Time ................................ 51
3.2 Presentation of the Real Geomagnetic Field by Series
of Spherical Harmonics; Gauss Coefficients ............. 52
3.3 Relative Role of Spherical Harmonics in the Formation
of the Geomagnetic Field from Internal Sources ......... 55
3.4 Analytical Methods of Trajectory Calculations in
the Real Geomagnetic Field ............................. 56
3.4.1 General Equation ................................ 56
3.4.2 Störmer Method .................................. 57
3.4.3 Alfvén Method ................................... 60
3.4.4 Peculiarities at High Latitudes; Using
Boltzmann Equation .............................. 63
3.4.5 The Case of High CR Energy Density in the
Outer Magnetosphere and the Self-Consistent
Nonlinear Problem ............................... 63
3.4.6 Regions of Applicability of Analytical
Methods ......................................... 64
3.5 Main Methods of Numerical Calculation of Charged-
Particle Trajectories in the Real Geomagnetic Field .... 64
3.5.1 Gauss Coefficients and Expected Accuracy of
Numerical Calculation of Trajectories in
the Real Geomagnetic Field; Comparison with
that Expected for Dipole Field .................. 64
3.5.2 Störmer's Method of Numerical Calculation
of Trajectories in Dipole Geomagnetic Field:
Why it cannot be Used for Real Geomagnetic
Field ........................................... 67
3.5.3 Method Runge-Kutta of Fourth Order for
Numerical Calculations of CR Trajectories in
Real Geomagnetic Field .......................... 67
3.5.4 The Choice of the Value of the Step of
Numerical Integration: The Gill's
Modification .................................... 69
3.5.5 Kelsall's Modification of the Runge-Kutta
Method .......................................... 70
3.5.6 The Merson's Modification of the Runge-Kutta
Method I ........................................ 70
3.5.7 The Stability of CR Trajectory Integration and
Control of Accuracy ............................. 71
3.5.8 Numerical CR Trajectory Integration in
Spherical Geographical System of Coordinates .... 72
3.5.9 Divergence-Free Magnetic Field Interpolation
and Symplectic Method of Charged-Particle
Trajectory Integration .......................... 75
3.5.10 Symplectic Tracing of High-Energy Charged
Particles in the Inner Magnetosphere ............ 77
3.6 Asymptotic Directions, Impact Zones, and Acceptance
Cones in the Geomagnetic Field Including the Higher
Harmonics .............................................. 85
3.6.1 Examples for Different CR Stations .............. 85
3.6.2 Classification of Stations by their Acceptance
Cones ........................................... 86
3.6.3 Acceptance Cones for Russian and Former Soviet
Net of Stations ................................. 88
3.6.4 Asymptotic Directions for the Worldwide Net
of CR Stations .................................. 90
3.6.5 Asymptotic Directions for Solar CR During
Some Great Events ............................... 90
3.6.6 Asymptotic Directions for Several Selected CR
Stations ........................................ 90
3.7 On the Connection of CR Cutoff Rigidities in the Real
Geomagnetic Field with the L-Parameter of McIlwain ..... 92
3.7.1 Results for Dipole Field ........................ 92
3.7.2 Results for Trajectory Calculations for Quiet
Time ............................................ 93
3.7.3 Using the Relation between Rc and Mcllwain
L-Parameter for Estimation of Rc Variations
during Disturbed Periods ........................ 98
3.7.4 Estimation of Rc for Any Altitude on the Basis
of the Relationship Between Rc and L ............ 98
3.7.5 Global Rigidity Cutoff Maps Based on the
Relation Between Rc and L ....................... 99
3.7.6 Calculations of Rc and L for Different Models:
Comparison ..................................... 101
3.8 Planetary Distribution of Cutoff Rigidities at
Altitude 20 km ........................................ 102
3.8.1 Offset Dipole and CR Cutoff Rigidity
Coordinates .................................... 102
3.8.2 CR Vertical Cutoff Rigidity Planetary
Distribution for the Epoch 1955.0 .............. 104
3.8.3 CR Vertical Cutoff Rigidity Planetary
Distributions for Epochs 1965.0 and 1975.0 ..... 106
3.8.4 The Change of CR Vertical Cutoff Rigidity
Planetary Distribution During 20 Years, from
1955 to 1975 ................................... 106
3.8.5 CR Vertical Cutoff Rigidity Planetary
Distribution for Epoch 1980 .................... 106
3.8.6 CR Vertical Cutoff Rigidity Planetary
Distribution for Epoch 1990.0 .................. 106
3.8.7 CR Vertical Cutoff Rigidity Planetary
Distribution for Epoch 1995.0 .................. 107
3.8.8 CR Vertical Cutoff Rigidity Planetary
Distribution for Epoch 2000.0 .................. 107
3.9 CR Effective Cutoff Rigidity Planetary Distribution
for Satellite Altitudes ............................... 107
3.10 Cutoff Rigidities for the Worldwide Network of CR
Stations .............................................. 109
3.10.1 Calculations of Cutoff Rigidities for CR
Stations and Checking by Data on CR
Variations ..................................... 109
3.10.2 Comparison of Different Models of
Calculation .................................... 110
3.10.3 Comparison of Different Models of the
Geomagnetic Field .............................. 11l
3.10.4 Cutoff Rigidities for Inclined Directions ...... 1ll
3.11 The CR Penumbral Effects in the Real Geomagnetic
Field ................................................. 1ll
3.11.1 The CR Penumbra in Dependence of Delineated
Value .......................................... 1ll
3.11.2 The Concept of the First Forbidden Band in
the CR Penumbra ................................ 113
3.11.3 Penumbral Width in Dependence of Vertical
Cutoff Rigidity for Different Epochs ........... 114
3.11.4 Effective Vertical Cutoff Rigidities for
Different CR Detectors and Types of CR
Variations ..................................... 114
3.12 CR Rigidity Transmittance Functions ................... 119
3.12.1 The Concept of the Transmittance Function and
Two Methods of Calculation ..................... 119
3.12.2 The Dependence of Transmittance Function
Calculation Accuracy from the Delineated
Value .......................................... 121
3.12.3 The Dependence of Transmittance Function
Calculation Accuracy from the Number of
Azimuthal Directions ........................... 122
3.12.4 On the Influence of Ionization Losses on the
Transmittance Function ......................... 122
3.12.5 On the Checking of the Theoretically
Calculated CR Rigidity Transmittance
Functions by Balloon Experiments ............... 125
3.12.6 On Checking the Theoretically Calculated
CR Rigidity Transmittance Functions by
Satellite Experiments .......................... 128
3.12.7 Transmittance Function Approach to
Disentangle Primary from Secondary CR Fluxes
in the Penumbra Region ......................... 129
3.13 Obliquely Incident Particles and Apparent Cutoff
Rigidities ............................................ 136
3.14 Simulation of the Geomagnetic Cutoff Rigidity Angle
Distribution with the GEANT-3 Computing Program
using the Data of the International Geomagnetic
Reference Field ....................................... 140
3.14.1 Importance of the Exact Knowledge of the CR
Cutoff Rigidity Angle Distribution for the
Problems of Atmospheric Neutrino and Other
Secondary Particles Generated in the Earth's
Atmosphere ..................................... 140
3.14.2 Using the Backtracking Method for the Precise
Calculation of the Geomagnetic Cutoff
Rigidities ..................................... 141
3.14.3 Calculations and Results for the Planetary
and Angle Distributions of CR Geomagnetic
Cutoff Rigidity ................................ 142
3.14.4 Comparison with AMS Measurements of the
Geomagnetic Cutoff on Shuttle .................. 143
3.15 Geomagnetic Field Influence on Secondary CR
Generated and Propagated in the Atmosphere ............ 144
3.15.1 On the Possible Geomagnetic Effects in
Secondary CRs .................................. 144
3.15.2 The Main Conditions for Calculations and
Principal Sources .............................. 144
3.15.3 Expected Ratios of Secondary CR Neutrons
to Muons with and without Allowance for
the Geomagnetic Field .......................... 145
3.15.4 Expected Differential Energy Spectra N(E) of
Secondary Neutrons and Muons at Sea Level and
at H = 5 km from Primary CR Protons with
Energy 3 and l0GeV According to Calculations
with and Without Geomagnetic Field Influence
on Their Propagation in the Atmosphere ......... 147
3.15.5 Differential Energy Spectra of Neutrons,
Protons, Charged Pions and Muons at Sea Level
and Altitudes 5, 10, 15 km Generated from
Primary Protons with Energies 3 and l0GeV
According to Calculations Taking into Account
the Geomagnetic Field Influence on Secondary
CR Particles Propagation ....................... 148
3.15.6 On the Detector's Integral Multiplicity
Taking Account of Geomagnetic Field Influence
on Secondary CR Particle Propagation ........... 149
3.15.7 On Checking Geomagnetic Field Effects on
Secondary CRs During their Propagation in
the Atmosphere using Data from High-Latitude
CR Stations .................................... 150
3.16 On the Influence of IMF on the CR Entry into the
Earth's Magnetosphere ................................. 151
3.16.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 151
3.16.2 The MHD Model of the Magnetosphere for
Different IMF Conditions ....................... 151
3.16.3 Calculations of CR Particle Trajectories ....... 154
3.16.4 Particle Distribution in Velocity Space ........ 155
3.16.5 How the Magnetosphere Reaches a Quasi-Steady
Configuration Consistent with Each IMF
Direction ...................................... 156
3.16.6 Calculation Results for IMF in a Southward
Orientation .................................... 156
3.16.7 Calculation Results for IMF in a Dawnward
Orientation .................................... 159
3.16.8 Calculation Results for IMF in a Northward
Orientation .................................... 161
3.16.9 Comparison of the Time-Dependent and Time-
Independent Cases .............................. 164
3.16.10 On the Energy Change of Particles Entering
Inside the Magnetosphere ....................... 166
3.16.11 Demonstration of the Magnetospheric
Configuration's Control of the Entry of
High-Energy Particles ......................... 170
3.16.12 On the 3He Ion Trajectories for Southward
IMF ........................................... 173
3.16.13 Main Results and Discussion ................... 173
3.17 Propagation of Protons in the Energy Range 0.1 -50
MeV through the Earth's Bow Shock, MagnetoSheath,
and Magnetopause Inside the Magnetosphere ............. 174
3.17.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 174
3.17.2 Three Categories of Energetic Protons
Incoming to the Earth .......................... 175
3.17.3 Energetic Proton Propagation through Bow
Shock with Shock-Drift Acceleration ............ 176
3.17.4 Energetic Particles Propagation through
Bow-Shock with Diffusive Shock Acceleration .... 177
3.17.5 MHD Simulation ................................. 177
3.17.6 The Grid System for Simulation ................. 178
3.17.7 The Efficiency of the Shock-Drift
Acceleration ................................... 178
3.17.8 Calculation of Proton Trajectories for Three
Regions ........................................ 179
3.17.9 Results for the Shock-Drift Acceleration at
the Bow Shock (Case A) ......................... 180
3.17.10 Energetic Particle Entry into the
Magnetosphere and Expected Polar Map of
Proton Precipitation at Are (Case A) .......... 182
3.17.11 Relation Between Proton Entry and
Shock-Drift Acceleration ...................... 184
3.17.12 Statistical Results for Proton Entry and
Shock-Drift Acceleration ...................... 187
3.17.13 Results for Large Solar Wind Density
Increase (Case B) ............................. 187
3.17.14 Comparison Between Cases A and В .............. 187
3.17.15 Discussion on the Main Results and
Observational Evidence ........................ 189
4 Cosmic Ray Planetary Surveys on Ships, Trains, Tracks,
Planes, Balloons, and Satellites ........................... 191
4.1 CR Latitude Surveys by Japanese Expeditions during
1956-1962 to Antarctica on the Ship Soya .............. 191
4.1.1 The Routes and CR Apparatus in Japanese and
Some Previous Latitude Surveys ................. 191
4.1.2 Corrections of Japanese CR Latitude Survey
Data on the Barometric Effect and Worldwide
CR Variations .................................. 191
4.1.3 Database of Japanese CR Latitude Surveys ....... 194
4.1.4 Geomagnetic Latitude CR Curves for Neutron
and Muon Components ............................ 195
4.1.5 CR Equator According to Measurements in
Japanese Expeditions ........................... 195
4.1.6 Longitude Effect Along the CR Equator .......... 196
4.1.7 The Position of Latitude Knee According to
Japanese Expeditions ........................... 197
4.1.8 Planetary Distribution of CR Neutron
Intensity ...................................... 197
4.2 Swedish-USA Latitude Surveys During 1956-1959 in
Connection with the International Geophysical Year .... 198
4.2.1 Latitude Surveys and the Problem of CR Cutoff
Rigidities ..................................... 198
4.2.2 CR Equator Along the Longitude 14° W ........... 200
4.2.3 Dependencies of CR Intensity from the Cutoff
Rigidity ....................................... 201
4.3 CR Latitude Surveys by Canadian Expeditions in
1965-1966 ............................................. 201
4.3.1 Three Canadian CR Latitude Surveys, Routes,
and using Apparatus ............................ 201
4.3.2 Main Results for the Expedition in Summer
1965 ........................................... 203
4.3.3 CR Latitude Survey in Canada in November-
December 1965 .................................. 203
4.3.4 CR Latitude Survey in Western USA and Hawaii
in Summer 1966 204
4.3.5 Calibrated and Extended Measurements of CR
Intensity on the Aircraft at Different
Altitudes and at Different Cutoff Rigidities ... 206
4.3.6 Geographically Smoothed Geomagnetic Cutoffs
Rigidities ..................................... 207
4.3.7 Final Analysis of Three Canadian CR Latitude
Survey Data .................................... 208
4.3.8 CR Latitude Effects at Different Altitudes ..... 210
4.3.9 Comparison of Latitude Curves for Neutron
Intensity in Two Minima of Solar Activity
in 1954/55 and 1965/66 ......................... 211
4.4 NM Surveys in the Southern Ocean to Antarctica by
USA, Australia, and South Africa ...................... 212
4.4.1 Main Results of the Latitude Survey 1994/95;
Discovery of the Sea State CR Effect ........... 212
4.4.2 CR Spectra Deduced from Neutron Monitor
Surveys ........................................ 214
4.4.3 Apparent Geomagnetic Cutoffs and the CR
Anomaly in the Cape Town Region ................ 216
4.4.4 Using He-3 Neutron Counters for Neutron-
Component Measurements; CR Latitude Survey
in 1998/99 ..................................... 217
4.4.5 Latitude Survey Observations of Neutron
Multiplicities ................................. 220
4.4.6 Continuing Each-Year NM Latitude Surveys:
Main Results from 1994-2001 .................... 223
4.5 Latitude Surveys of Environmental Radiation and Soft
Secondary CR Components by Italian Expeditions to
Antarctica ............................................ 225
4.5.1 Environmental Radiation and Soft Secondary CR
Monitoring Along the Course of the
Expeditions from Italy to Antarctica and
Back ........................................... 225
4.5.2 The Environmental Radiation and Soft
Secondary CR Detectors ......................... 227
4.5.3 Measured Spectra of Environmental Radiation .... 228
4.5.4 Latitude Dependencies of Environmental
Radiation in the 50-3,500 keV Energy Band ...... 228
4.5.5 Observations of Transition Sea-to-Land
Effects and "Radonic Storms" in the
Environment Radiation During Latitude
Surveys ........................................ 230
4.5.6 Latitude Effects of the Soft Secondary CR
Components in the Energy Ranges 2.8-5.0 and
5-20 MeV ....................................... 231
4.5.7 The Main Results Obtained During Latitude
Surveys of Environment Radiation and Soft
Secondary CR Components ........................ 232
4.6 Daily CR Latitude Curves Derived from the NM
Worldwide Network Data ................................ 232
4.6.1 The Main Idea of the Method Developed by
Italian Scientists ............................. 232
4.6.2 The Daily Sea-Level CR Latitude Curves
Obtained from the NM Worldwide Network and
CR Latitude Surveys ............................ 233
4.6.3 Using CR Latitude Survey Data for NM
Calibration .................................... 234
4.6.4 Using Daily Sea-Level CR Latitude Curves for
Studying Spectral Structure of Large Forbush
Decreases ...................................... 236
4.6.5 Using Daily Sea-Level CR Latitude Curves for
Studying the Long-Term CR Spectral
Variations ..................................... 241
4.6.6 Comparison of CR Latitude Curves for
Long-Term and Forbush Decreases in CR
Spectral Variations ............................ 244
4.6.7 Using Daily Sea-Level CR Latitude Curves for
Studying the Influence of the Primary CR
Modulation on the Attenuation Coefficient of
the Nucleonic Component at Different
Latitudes and Altitudes ........................ 247
4.6.8 Using Daily CR Latitude Curves for Studying
the Influence of the Primary CR Modulation
on the Coupling Functions of the Nucleonic
Component at Sea Level and at Altitudes
∼1,900m above Sea Level ........................ 248
4.6.9 Latitude and Altitude Dependencies of Primary
Modulation Effects in Neutron Multiplicity
Distribution in the NM-IQSY .................... 250
4.7 CR Latitude Surveys over the Territory of the Former
USSR .................................................. 254
4.7.1 CR Intensity Distribution over the Territory
of the Former USSR ............................. 254
4.7.2 Latitude Curves of Neutron Intensity and
Cutoff Rigidities .............................. 255
4.7.3 Coupling Functions for Neutron Component at
Sea Level ...................................... 256
4.7.4 Coupling Functions for the Neutron Component
at Mountain Level .............................. 257
4.7.5 Calculation of the Integral Multiplicity for
the Neutron Component .......................... 258
4.7.6 The Measurements of Geomagnetic Effects
by CR Telescope; the Methods for Treating
the Experimental Data .......................... 258
4.7.7 Cutoff Rigidities for CR Telescope: Vertical
and Inclined Directions ........................ 260
4.7.8 Latitude Curves for the CR Telescope ........... 261
4.7.9 Amplitudes of Latitude Effects of Various
Components Measured by CR Telescope ............ 262
4.7.10 The East-West CR Asymmetry ..................... 262
4.7.11 Coupling Functions and Integral
Multiplicities for Total Ionizing and Hard
CR Components Derived from Latitude Curves ..... 264
4.7.12 Latitude Surveys and Coupling Functions for
Neutron Monitor Without Lead ................... 265
4.7.13 The Airplane CR Latitude Surveys over
the Former USSR at Altitudes with Pressures
of 260-400 mb .................................. 269
4.7.14 The Balloon CR Latitude Surveys over the
Former USSR .................................... 270
4.7.15 The Balloon Measurements over the Former USSR
of East-West CR Asymmetry: Estimation of the
Upper Limit for Antiproton/Proton Ratio ........ 271
4.8 Soviet CR Survey Expeditions over the World on
the Ship Kislovodsk ................................... 275
4.8.1 CR Latitude Survey During December 1967-March
1968 ........................................... 275
4.8.2 Determining the Coupling Functions ............. 276
4.8.3 Determining the CR Equator at 28°W ............. 277
4.9 Soviet CR Survey Expeditions over the World on the
r/v Academician Kurchatov ............................. 278
4.9.1 Regular CR Latitude Measurements on the r/v
Academician Kurchatov .......................... 278
4.9.2 Determining of Coupling Functions on the
Basis of Latitude Surveys ...................... 279
4.9.3 The Normalizing of the Worldwide Network of
CR Stations on the Basis of CR Latitude
Surveys by r/v Academician Kurchatov ........... 280
4.9.4 Determining Integral Multiplicities ............ 281
4.9.5 Determining the Primary Spectrum of Long-Term
CR Variation ................................... 283
4.9.6 Comparison of Coupling Functions Derived from
CR Latitude Services with Theoretical
Expected ....................................... 284
4.9.7 Using CR Latitude Surveys by r/v Academician
Kurchatov for Checking the Cutoff Rigidities
Models ......................................... 284
4.9.8 Estimation of Coupling Functions for Total
Neutron Component and Different
Multiplicities ................................. 286
4.9.9 Main Results of r/v Academician Kurchatov
Expeditions in 1971/72 and 1975: Checking
Cutoff Rigidities and Determining Coupling
Functions ...................................... 286
4.9.10 Main Results of the r/v Academician Kurchatov
Expedition in 1982: Determining Coupling
Functions for Without-Lead NM and for NM-IQSY
Total Intensity and Different Multiplicities;
Distribution Function of Multiplicities
Depending on Cutoff Rigidity ................... 290
4.10 CR Latitude-Altitude Surveys and Secondary CR
Dependencies from Cutoff Rigidity and Atmospheric
Depth ................................................. 296
4.10.1 Latitudinal and Altitudinal Coupling
Coefficients: Nominations and
Interconnections ............................... 296
4.10.2 Latitude Dependence of Secondary CR
Variations ..................................... 298
4.10.3 Altitude Dependencies of Secondary
Variations ..................................... 299
4.10.4 Determination of the Spectrum of the Primary
CR Variations .................................. 299
4.11 The Latitude Knee of Secondary CR ..................... 301
4.11.1 The Latitude Knee of Secondary CR and its
Origin ......................................... 301
4.11.2 The Calculation Model of the Secondary CR
Knee Position .................................. 301
4.11.3 The Latitude Knee of the Nucleonic Component
at Sea Level ................................... 302
4.11.4 The Latitude Knee of the Muon Component
at Sea Level ................................... 304
4.11.5 The Altitude Dependence of the Knee for
Nucleonic and Muon Components .................. 304
4.12 Comparison with Observations on the CR Latitude
Knee .................................................. 306
4.12.1 Comparison for Neutron Component ............... 306
4.12.2 Comparison for Muon Component at Sea Level ..... 306
4.12.3 Comparison with Experimental Data on the CR
Muon Latitude Knee at an Atmospheric Depth
of 310g/cm2 .................................... 308
4.13 South African Latitude Surveys at Different
Altitudes by Airplanes ................................ 311
4.13.1 South African Expeditions, Response Functions
and 22-Year Modulation ......................... 311
4.13.2 Latitude Distributions of CR Components at
Sea Level and at Airplane Altitudes in
the South African Magnetic Anomaly ............. 314
4.13.3 Cutoff Rigidities and Latitude Dependence of
Muons at 307 g/cm2 in Inclined Directions ...... 318
4.14 Latitude CR Surveys on Balloons ....................... 322
4.14.1 Survey of CR Intensity in 86° N to 73° S
Geomagnetic Latitude on Balloons ............... 322
4.14.2 Latitude Surveys by Balloon Measurements of
CR Vertical Intensity and East-West
Asymmetry; Determining Energy Spectrum and
Charge Sign of Primary CR ...................... 329
5 Main Results of Cosmic Ray Survey to Antarctica on
the Ship Italica in 1996/97 ................................ 341
5.1 Description of Apparatus, Trajectory Calculations of
Cutoff Rigidities in the Real Geomagnetic Field Along
the Ship's Voyage ...................................... 341
5.1.1 Importance of Obtaining Exact Data in CR
Latitude Surveys ............................... 341
5.1.2 Principles of the Data Corrections Method ...... 342
5.1.3 Description of the Experiment .................. 343
5.1.4 The Recorded Data and Acquisition System ....... 343
5.1.5 Quality Assurance Procedures'. Presurvey and
Postsurvey Measurements ........................ 344
5.1.6 The Latitude Survey: Route and Main Results .... 346
5.1.7 The Quality Assurance Procedures and Internal
Tests .......................................... 348
5.2 Correction for Primary CR Variations and Summary of
All Corrections ....................................... 349
5.2.1 Primary Isotropic Time Variations .............. 349
5.2.2 Corrections for Primary North-South Asymmetry
of CR Distribution in the Interplanetary
Space .......................................... 350
5.2.3 The Summing of all Corrections Including
Meteorological Effects ......................... 352
5.2.4 Quality Assurance Procedure: Internal
Comparison of Corrected Data ................... 352
5.2.5 Critical Consideration of Results in Sections
5.1 and 5.2.1- 5.2.4 ........................... 354
5.3 Computation of Cutoff Rigidities of Vertically
Incident CR Particles for Latitude Survey ............. 355
5.4 Dependencies of Corrected CR Intensities upon Cutoff
Rigidity .............................................. 357
5.5 Forward-Backward Effect: CR East-West Asymmetry and
Asymmetric Distribution of Neutron Absorption and
Generation Around the Monitor ......................... 359
5.5.1 Forward-Backward Effect During CR Latitude
Survey: Asymmetry in Cutoff Rigidities ......... 359
5.5.2 Contribution of Nonvertical Incidence
Particles to the 3NM-IQSY Counting Rate ........ 360
5.5.3 Forward-Backward Effect During CR Latitude
Survey: Expected Asymmetry in Neutron
Intensities .................................... 362
5.6 CR Intensity Versus Cutoff Rigidity, Analytical
Approximation, and Coupling Functions for the
3NM-IQSY and 2BC Detectors ............................ 364
5.6.1 Analytical Description of the Dependence of
the 3NM-IQSY and 2BC Intensities on the
Vertical Cutoff Rigidity ....................... 364
5.6.2 Analytical Description of Coupling Functions
for the 3NM-IQSY and 2BC Detectors ............. 365
5.7 Effective Cutoff Rigidities for Different Zenith and
Azimuth Angles of CR Arriving at Points Along
the Ship Route ........................................ 365
5.7.1 Calculation of Effective Cutoff Rigidities
for Different Zenith and Azimuth Angles of CR
Arriving at Points Along the Ship Route from
Italy to Antarctica ............................ 366
5.7.2 Effective Cutoff Rigidities for Different
Zenith and Azimuth Angles for the Ship Route
from Antarctica to Italy ....................... 369
5.8 Apparent Cutoff Rigidities Along the Ship's Route
and Related Coupling Functions for the 3NM-IQSY and
2BC Detectors ......................................... 371
5.8.1 Calculation of Apparent Cutoff Rigidities Rapcp
along the Ship's Route: Dipole Approximation
for Inclined Directions ........................ 371
5.8.2 Calculation of Apparent Cutoff Rigidities in
the Real Geomagnetic Field for the Ship Route
Italy-Antarctica Taking into Account Results
of Trajectory Calculations for Inclined
Directions ..................................... 373
5.8.3 Calculation of Apparent Cutoff Rigidities in
the Real Geomagnetic Field for the Ship Route
Antarctica-Italy Taking into Account Results
of Trajectory Calculations for Inclined
Directions ..................................... 375
5.8.4 Comparison of Latitude Dependencies and
Coupling Functions for Effective Rcp and
Apparent Rapcp Cutoff Rigidities ............... 376
5.9 Summary of Results of the CR Latitude Survey on
the Ship ltalica in 1996/97, and Discussion on
Coupling Functions .................................... 377
5.9.1 Main Results Obtained in CR Latitude Survey
in 1996/97 on Board the Ship Italica ........... 377
5.9.2 Comparison and Discussion on Coupling
Functions ...................................... 378
Geomagnetic Variations of Cosmic Rays ...................... 381
6.1 Two Main Sources of CR Geomagnetic Variations ......... 381
6.2 CR Variations Expected for Large Long-Term Changes
of the Geomagnetic Field .............................. 382
6.2.1 Expected CR Variations Caused by Changing
of the Earth's Dipole Magnetic Moment .......... 382
6.2.2 Variations of Geomagnetic Origin During
the Last 2,000 Years ........................... 384
6.2.3 Secular Variations of the Cutoff Rigidities .... 385
6.3 Trajectory Calculations of Long-Term Variation of
Planetary Distribution of Cutoff Rigidities ........... 386
6.3.1 Results for 1600-2000 by Steps of 50 Years ..... 386
6.3.2 An Example of Cutoff Variability on CR
Station LARC During 1955-1995 in Connection
with Geomagnetic "Jerks" ....................... 387
6.3.3 Long-Term Variations of the Planetary
Distribution of Geomagnetic Rigidity Cutoffs
During the Last 2,000 Years .................... 395
6.3.4 On the Variation of the Earth's Magnetic
Dipole Moment During 1600-2005 ................. 401
6.3.5 Long-Term Variation of the Planetary
Distribution of the Geomagnetic Rigidity
Cutoffs Between 1950 and 2000 .................. 401
6.4 Long-Term Change of Cutoff Rigidities and
the Expected Change of CR Intensity Owed to
Geomagnetic Field Variation ........................... 404
6.5 The Global Cutoff Rigidities and their Change During
the Last 2,000 Years .................................. 405
6.6 Effects of Axially Symmetric Currents in
the Magnetosphere: The Provisional Assessment of
the Causes of Variations in Cutoff Rigidities During
Magnetic Storms ....................................... 406
6.6.1 Development of Models of the Axially
Symmetric Current's Influence on CR Cutoff
Rigidities ..................................... 406
6.6.2 The CR Vertical Cutoff Rigidities in
the Presence of a Thin Equatorial Ring
Current ........................................ 409
6.6.3 The CR Cutoff Rigidities for Obliquely
Incident Particles in the Presence of a Thin
Equatorial Ring Current ........................ 410
6.7 Influence of Current Sheets Surfaces on the CR
Geomagnetic Cutoff Rigidities ......................... 416
6.7.1 Current Sheet in the Form of a Spherical
Surface ........................................ 416
6.7.2 Current Sheet Formed by Rotating the Line
of Force of the Magnetic Dipole ................ 417
6.8 The Effect of Volume Currents in the Radiation Belts
(Akasofu and Chapman Model) on the CR Cutoff
Rigidity .............................................. 422
6.9 The Influence of Ring Currents on the Position of CR
Impact Zones and Asymptotic Directions ................ 423
6.10 Effect of Compression of the Magnetosphere (Current
System in Eastern Direction) on CR Cutoff
Rigidities ............................................ 424
6.11 Effect of Compression of the Magnetosphere and
Western Current Systems on CR Asymptotic Directions
and the Acceptance Cones .............................. 426
6.12 Asymmetric Variations of the Magnetosphere and
Diurnal CR Variations of Geomagnetic Origin ........... 427
6.13 Oscillation of the Asymptotic Acceptance Cones ........ 427
6.14 The First Observations of CR Variations Due to
Changes in the Geomagnetic Field ...................... 432
6.14.1 Unusual Increases During Magnetic Storms ....... 432
6.14.2 Application of the Method of Coupling
Functions ...................................... 436
6.14.3 The Latitude-Longitude Distribution of
the CR Increase Effect of September 13, 1957 ... 439
6.14.4 The Latitude-Longitude Distribution of
the CR Increase Effect on February 11, 1958 .... 441
6.14.5 Main Properties of the CR Intensity Increase
During the Main Phase of a Magnetic Storm ...... 444
6.14.6 Statistical Properties of the CR Increase
Effect During the Main Phase of the
Geomagnetic Storm .............................. 445
6.14.7 Possible Influence of Small Magnetic
Perturbations on Cosmic Rays ................... 447
6.14.8 Earlier Detection of the Effect of
Compression of the Magnetosphere in Cosmic
Rays ........................................... 448
6.14.9 Earlier Direct Observations of the Cutoff
Variations by Means of Measurements on
Balloons and Satellites and from Polar Cap
Absorptions .................................... 448
6.15 Variations of the Geomagnetic Field and Local CR
Anisotropy ............................................ 449
6.15.1 The Asymmetry in the Variation of the CR
Cutoff Rigidity for East-West Directions in
Ahmedabad and North-South Directions in
Moscow ......................................... 449
6.15.2 The Analysis of CR Cutoff Rigidity Asymmetry
on the Basis of Directional Data in Capetown
and Yakutsk, and NM Worldwide Network .......... 451
6.15.3 The Main Results and Discussion on CR Cutoff
Rigidity Asymmetry During Magnetic Storms ...... 455
6.15.4 The Anomalous CR Diurnal Variation During
the Main Phase of the Magnetic Storm of
February 11, 1958 .............................. 455
6.15.5 On the Nature of CR Anisotropy Asymmetry:
Local and Non-local Sources .................... 456
6.16 CR Lunar-Daily Variation and Tidal Effects in
the Earth's Magnetosphere ............................. 458
6.16.1 The Discovery of Lunar-Daily CR Variation
and Discussion on Its Possible Origin .......... 458
6.16.2 Amplitude Modulation of CR Solar-Daily Wave
by the 27-Day Effect and Formation of
Spurious CR Lunar-Daily Variation .............. 459
6.16.3 Formation of Spurious CR Lunar-Daily
Variation by the Phase Modulation of CR
Solar-Daily Wave with a Period of 27 Days ...... 460
6.16.4 Checking on the Properties of 27-Day
Modulation of CR Solar-Daily Variation ......... 460
6.16.5 On the Possible Reality of the CR Lunar-Daily
Variation ...................................... 461
6.16.6 The Dependence of the CR Lunar-Daily
Variation on the Relative Positions of
the Sun, Moon, and Earth ....................... 462
6.16.7 Dependence of the CR Lunar-Daily Variation on
Cutoff Rigidity ................................ 463
6.16.8 Main Conclusions and Discussion on the CR
Lunar-Daily Variation in Connection with
Possible Tidal Effects in the Earth's
Atmosphere and Magnetosphere ................... 464
6.17 The Influence of the Tail of the Earth's
Magnetosphere on the CR Cutoff Rigidities ............. 467
6.17.1 Main Properties of the Tail of
the Magnetosphere .............................. 467
6.17.2 Probable Mechanism by Which the Earth's
Magnetic Tail Influences the CR Cutoff
Rigidities ..................................... 468
6.17.3 Approximate Position of the Curves of
Constant Threshold at High Latitudes ........... 468
6.17.4 The Influence of the Earth's Magnetic Tail
on the Trajectories of Protons with Energy
1.2 MeV ........................................ 469
6.17.5 Channeling of Low-Energy Cosmic Rays in
the Tail of the Earth's Magnetosphere .......... 470
6.18 Discriminating CR Magnetospheric Variations from
Observed CR Data by the Spectrographical Method ....... 473
6.18.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 473
6.18.2 Determining Cutoff Rigidity Change by
the Spectrographic Method on the Basis of
Single CR Observatory Data ..................... 476
6.18.3 Determining the Cutoff Rigidity Changes by
the Spectrographic Method on the Basis of
Data from Two CR Observatories (Case One and
Three Components) .............................. 477
6.18.4 Determining the Cutoff Rigidity Changes in
the Case of Two Components in the Each of
the Two CR Observatories ....................... 478
6.18.5 Determining Planetary Cutoff Rigidity Changes
Distribution on the Basis of Many CR
Observatories' Data by the Spectrographic
Method ......................................... 479
6.18.6 An Example of Using the Spectrographic Method
for Determining CR Geomagnetic Variations;
Application to Ring Current (Events in May
and June 1972) ................................. 482
6.19 Cutoff Rigidity Variations of European Mid-latitude
Stations During the September 1974 Forbush Decrease ... 485
6.19.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 485
6.19.2 Used Data and Main Characteristics of
the Event ...................................... 485
6.19.3 Results of Data Analysis ....................... 486
6.19.4 Main Results and Discussion .................... 488
6.20 The Extraterrestrial and Geomagnetic Variations in
CR During the Forbush Decreases of March 26, 1976 ..... 489
6.20.1 Observation Data ............................... 489
6.20.2 Comparison Between the ΔRс(t) and
Dst-Variations ................................. 489
6.20.3 Variations of ΔRс on Different CR Stations
and Dependence of δRс on Rco .................. 491
6.20.4 Estimation of Ring Current's Properties ........ 492
6.21 Estimates of the Parameters of the Magnetospheric
Ring Current During Magnetic Storms on the Basis of
CR Data ............................................... 493
6.21.1 The Matter of Problem and Observational Data ... 493
6.21.2 Analysis of Data in the Frame of Two Used
Models of Ring Current ......................... 493
6.21.3 Main Results and Discussion .................... 496
6.22 Interrelation Between Variations of the CR Cutoff
Rigidity and the Geomagnetic Dst-Variation During
Magnetic Storms ....................................... 497
6.22.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 497
6.22.2 Observational Data and Variations of Rc
During Three Events ............................ 498
6.22.3 Discussion and Main Results .................... 499
6.23 The CR Decreases at High Latitudes and Increases at
Middle Latitudes During Magnetic Storms ............... 500
6.23.1 The Cases When During Magnetic Storms at High
Latitudes Observed CR Decreases but at Middle
Latitudes CR Increases ......................... 500
6.23.2 Main Equations for the Extended
Spectrographic Method .......................... 501
6.23.3 CR and Magnetic Parameters for Eight Selected
Magnetic Storms ................................ 502
6.23.4 Estimation of the Current Ring Radius .......... 502
6.24 Using the Simplest Version of the Global
Spectrographic Method (BDY-Method) for
Discriminating CR Magnetospheric Variations ........... 505
6.24.1 The Matter of Problem and the Simplest
Version of the Global Spectrographic Method .... 505
6.24.2 Magnetospheric Effects on CR During Forbush
Decreases in August 1972 ....................... 506
6.24.3 The Longitude and Latitude Dependences of
the Geomagnetic Cutoff Rigidity Variations
During Strong Magnetic Storms in May 25-26,
1967, December 17-18, 1971, and in August
4-5, 1972 ...................................... 509
6.24.4 Changes of CR Cutoff Rigidities During Great
Magnetic Storms in May 1967, August 1972, and
November 1991 .................................. 514
6.24.5 On the Correction of CR Data on Geomagnetic
Variations ..................................... 518
6.25 Magnetospheric Currents and Variations of Cutoff
Rigidities on October 20, 1989 ........................ 518
6.25.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 518
6.25.2 Procedure of CR Cutoff Rigidity Calculations ... 519
6.25.3 Applying to NM Data of Moscow, Kiev, and
Rome ........................................... 520
6.25.4 Estimation of Magnetospheric Currents .......... 520
6.25.5 Recalculations of Cutoff Rigidity Changes ...... 522
6.25.6 Checking Using Balloon and Satellite
Measurements ................................... 524
6.25.7 Summary and Discussion ......................... 524
7 Magnetospheric Models and their Checking by Cosmic Rays .... 525
7.1 The Earth's Magnetic Field with a Warped Tail
Current Sheet (Tsyganenko-89 Model) ................... 525
7.1.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 525
7.1.2 Axisymmetric Current Sheet Model and its
Modification ................................... 527
7.1.3 Application to the Earth's Magnetosphere:
The Ring Current and the Tail Current
Systems ........................................ 530
7.1.4 Contribution from the Magnetospheric Boundary
Sources ........................................ 533
7.1.5 Analysis of the Model's Parameters Depending
on Kp .......................................... 534
7.1.6 Model of Magnetic Field Distribution and
Field-Line Configurations ...................... 537
7.1.7 Local Time-Dependence of the Average
Inclination Angles ............................. 540
7.1.8 Distribution of Electric Current Density ....... 540
7.1.9 The Model Field-Line Configurations for
Several Kp Intervals ........................... 542
7.1.10 Summary of Main Results and Model Developing ... 545
7.2 Magnetospheric Configurations from a High-Resolution
Data-Based Magnetic Field Model ....................... 546
7.2.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 546
7.2.2 Modeling Equatorial Current System: Main
Approach ....................................... 547
7.2.3 Derivation of Vector Potentials ................ 549
7.2.4 Magnetic Field Components ...................... 552
7.2.5 Spatial Variation of the Current Sheet
Thickness ...................................... 554
7.2.6 Approximations for the Shielding Field ......... 554
7.2.7 Contribution from Field-Aligned Currents ....... 555
7.2.8 Data Used for Magnetosphere Modeling ........... 558
7.2.9 Regularization of Matrix Inversion
Procedures ..................................... 560
7.2.10 Data Weighting ................................. 561
7.2.11 Binning by Kp Index ............................ 563
7.2.12 Binning by the IMF Bz .......................... 564
7.2.13 Main and Recovery Storm Phases ................. 565
7.2.14 Field-Aligned and Equatorial Currents .......... 566
7.2.15 "Penetrating" Field Effect ..................... 568
7.2.16 Effects of the Dipole Tilt and IMF By on
the Model Tail Current ......................... 569
7.2.17 Summary of Main Results ........................ 570
7.3 Storm-Time Configuration of the Inner Magnetosphere:
Lyon-Fedder-Mobarry MHD Code, Tsyganenko Model, and
GOES Observations ..................................... 571
7.4 Magnetospheric Transmissivity of CR Accounting
Variability of the Geomagnetic Field with Changing
Kp and with Local Time (Within the Frame
of the Tsyganenko-89 Model) ........................... 576
7.4.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 576
7.4.2 The Calculation Method ......................... 577
7.4.3 Calculations of Transmissivity Functions ....... 578
7.4.4 Asymptotic Directions for a High-Latitude
Station ........................................ 579
7.4.5 The Transmission Function at Middle
Latitudes: Varying with IOPT ................... 584
7.4.6 The Weighted Transmissivity Function ........... 584
7.4.7 The Changing of the Transmissivity Function
During Very Strong Geomagnetic Disturbance ..... 584
7.4.8 Asymptotic Directions for a Middle-Latitude
Station ........................................ 587
7.4.9 Asymptotic Directions and Transmissivity
Function for Low-Altitude Satellite
Observations ................................... 589
7.4.10 Main Results and Discussion .................... 590
7.5 Geomagnetic Cutoff Variations Observed by Tibet NM
During the Maximum of Solar Activity: Checking
Within the Frame of the Tsyganenko-89 Model ........... 591
7.5.1 Tibet NM and Observation Data for Magnetic
Storm Events ................................... 591
7.5.2 Analysis of Data and Comparison with
the Tsyganenko-89 Model ........................ 593
7.6 Magnetospheric Effects in CR During the Magnetic
Storm in November 2003 ................................ 594
7.6.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 594
7.6.2 Solar and Interplanetary Activity in November
2003 ........................................... 597
7.6.3 Data and Method of Analysis .................... 597
7.6.4 Uncorrected and Corrected for
the Magnetospheric Effect CR Variations ........ 599
7.6.5 Cutoff Rigidity Variations During
the Magnetic Storm ............................. 600
7.6.6 Correlation of the Obtained δRci with Dst
Index .......................................... 600
7.6.7 Latitudinal Dependences of Cutoff Rigidity
Variations ..................................... 603
7.6.8 Comparison of Cutoff Rigidity Variations
Determined by CR Data and Derived from
Magnetosphere Models by Trajectory
Calculations ................................... 604
7.6.9 On the Consistency of the "Storm" Models
with the Current Distribution Derived from
Spacecraft Data ................................ 605
7.6.10 On the Specific Feature of the November 2003
Event and on the Radius of the Ring Current .... 607
7.6.11 On Possible Errors in Obtained Results ......... 607
7.6.12 On the Sensitivity of NM to CR Magnetospheric
Variation ...................................... 608
7.6.13 Summary of Main Results ........................ 609
7.7 On Checking the Magnetosphere Models by Galactic
CRs: The Great Magnetic Storm in November 2003 ........ 609
7.7.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 609
7.7.2 Comparison ΔRsgs Derived from CR Data and
ΔRef Obtained by Trajectory Tracing Within
in the Frame of the Ts03 Tsyganenko Model ...... 611
7.7.3 Comparison of Absolute and Relative Maximum
Decreases of CR Cutoff Rigidities .............. 613
7.7.4 The Behavior of the Difference δRC =
ΔRsgs-ΔRef ...................................... 613
7.7.5 On the Correlations of ΔRsgs and ΔRef with
Parameters Dst, Bz, By, Nsw, and Vsw ............. 613
7.7.6 On the Relations Between ΔRsgs and ΔRef for
Different CR Stations .......................... 615
7.7.7 Main Results and Conclusion .................... 617
7.8 Checking of Magnetosphere Models by Solar CRs: GLE
on January 20, 2005 ................................... 617
7.8.1 The Matter of Problem .......................... 617
7.8.2 CR Data of NM on Mt. Jungfraujoch in
Comparison with Other NM Data .................. 617
7.8.3 Determining CR Cutoff Rigidity Variations
During GLE within the Frame of Tsyganenko
Models of Disturbed Magnetosphere; Correction
of CR Data on Geomagnetic Variations ........... 619
7.8.4 Determining Solar CR Angle Distribution and
Energy Spectrum Time Variations, and Checking
Self-Consistent CR Data with Tsyganenko's
Magnetosphere Model ............................ 620
8 Galactic Cosmic Rays in Atmospheres and Magnetospheres
of Other Planets ........................................... 623
8.1 The Matter of Problem ................................. 623
8.2 The Properties of the Planetary Atmospheres ........... 623
8.3 The CR Secondary Components, the Integral Generation
Multiplicities, and the Coupling Functions in
the Martian Atmosphere; Expected Latitude Magnetic
Effect ................................................ 626
8.4 The CR Secondary Components, the Integral Generation
Multiplicities, and the Coupling Functions in
the Atmospheres of Jupiter and Venus; Expected
Latitude Magnetic Effect .............................. 629
Conclusion and Problems .................................... 633
References ................................................. 637
Appendix ...................................................... 683
Subject Index ................................................. 753
Author Index .................................................. 765
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