1.1 The Dynamics of Urban (Eco)Systems ......................... 8
1.2 Cities as Human Systems ................................... 15
1.3 Cities as Ecological Systems .............................. 16
1.4 Cities as Hybrid Ecosystems ............................... 17
1.5 Complexity, Emergent Properties, and Self-Organization .... 20
1.6 Resilience in Urban Ecosystems ............................ 22
1.7 Rationale for a Synthesis ................................. 25
2.1 Emergence and Evolution of Settlement Patterns ............ 29
2.2 Modeling Urban Development and Ecology .................... 34
2.3 An Agent-Based Hierarchical Model ......................... 43
2.4 Modeling Changes in Land Use and Land Cover ............... 49
2.5 Changes in Land Use and Land Cover in Puget Sound ......... 54
3.1 Patterns, Processes, and Functions in Urban Ecosystems .... 61
3.2 Net Primary Productivity .................................. 78
3.3 Hydrological Function ..................................... 79
3.4 Nutrient Cycles ........................................... 81
3.5 Biodiversity .............................................. 82
3.6 Disturbance Regimes ....................................... 85
3.7 An Empirical Study in Puget Sound ......................... 86
4.1 Hybrid Urban Landscapes ................................... 93
4.2 Gradients, Patches, Networks, and Hierarchies ............. 95
4.3 Urban Landscape Signatures ............................... 103
4.4 Measuring Urban Landscape Patterns ....................... 112
4.5 Detecting Landscape Patterns in Puget Sound .............. 117
4.6 Monitoring Landscape Change in Puget Sound ............... 126
5.1 The Urban Hydrological Cycle ............................. 133
5.2 Urban Hydrological Functions ............................. 137
5.3 Human-Induced Changes in Urban Watersheds ................ 144
5.4 Urban Patterns and Stream Biotic Integrity ............... 152
6.1 Urban Biogeochemistry .................................... 163
6.2 The Carbon Cycle ......................................... 167
6.3 The Sulfur Cycle ......................................... 170
6.4 The Phosphorus Cycle ..................................... 172
6.5 The Nitrogen Cycle ....................................... 174
6.6 Urban Patterns and Nutrient Cycling ...................... 176
7.1 Tropospheric Ozone ....................................... 183
7.2 Urban Air Quality and Climate Change ..................... 186
7.3 Urban Heat Islands ....................................... 187
7.4 Urban Patterns and Air Quality ........................... 194
8.1 Biodiversity, Ecosystem Function, and Resilience ......... 197
8.2 Urban Patch Dynamics ..................................... 207
8.3 Urban Ecosystem Processes and Biodiversity ............... 210
8.4 The Intermediate Hypothesis: A Case Study in Puget
Sound .................................................... 217
9.1 The Challenges: Complexity, Heterogeneity, and
Surprise ................................................. 225
9.2 Complexity and Predictability ............................ 227
9.3 Spatial and Temporal Heterogeneity ....................... 231
9.4 Threshold, Discontinuity, and Surprises .................. 232
9.5 Scenario Planning and Adaptive Management ................ 237
9.6 Hypothetical Scenarios of Urban Ecosystem Functions ...... 242
10.1 A Hybrid Ecology ......................................... 251
10.2 Toward a Theory of Urban Ecology ......................... 254
10.3 Building Integrated Models ............................... 261
10.4 A Research Agenda for Urban Ecology ...................... 263
10.5 Implications for Urban Planning .......................... 267
10.6 A Final Note ............................................. 270
|
