Contributors ................................................. xiii
Preface to the Second Edition .................................. xv
Chapter 1: Introduction to Paleoseismology ..................... 1
1.1 The Scope of Paleoseismology ............................... 1
1.1.1 Definition and Objectives ........................... 1
1.1.2 Organization and Scope of This Book ................. 5
1.1.3 The Relation of Paleoseismology to Other
Neotectonic Studies ................................. 5
1.2 Identifying Prehistoric Earthquakes from Primary and
Secondary Evidence ......................................... 8
1.2.1 Classification of Paleoseismic Evidence ............. 8
1.2.2 The Incompleteness of the Paleoseismic Record ...... 15
1.2.3 Underrepresentation Versus Overrepresentation of
the Paleoseismic Record ............................ 17
1.3 Prehistoric Earthquake Dating and Recurrence .............. 19
1.3.1 Dating Accuracy and Precision and Their Relation
to Recurrence ...................................... 21
1.3.2 Patterns in Recurrence ............................. 23
1.4 Estimating the Magnitude of Prehistoric Earthquakes ....... 23
1.5 The Early Development of Paleoseismology, 1890-1980 ....... 25
Chapter 2A: Field Techniques in Paleoseismology—Terrestrial
Environments ....................................... 29
2A.1 Introduction .............................................. 29
2A.1.1 Scope of the Chapter ............................... 29
2A.1.2 Preferred Sequence of Investigations ............... 30
2A.2 Mapping Paleoseismic Landforms ............................ 30
2A.2.1 Locating Surface Deformation ....................... 30
2A.2.2 Mapping Deposits Versus Landforms in Seismic
Areas .............................................. 42
2A.2.3 Detailed Topographic Mapping ....................... 43
2A.2.4 Topographic Profiling .............................. 46
2A.2.5 Dating Methods for Late Quaternary Landforms ....... 48
2A.3 Mapping Paleoseismic Stratigraphy ......................... 49
2A.3.1 Geophysical Techniques in Paleoseismology .......... 50
2A.3.2 Trenching .......................................... 61
2A.3.3 Drilling, Coring, Slicing, and Peeling ............. 97
2A.3.4 Dating Methods for Late Quaternary Deposits ....... 103
2A.4 Distinguishing Paleoseismic Features from Nonseismic
or Nontectonic Features .................................. 105
2A.4.1 Special Case: Stable Continental Interiors ........ 108
2A.5 Specialized Subfields of Paleoseismology ................. 111
2A.5.1 Archeoseismology .................................. 112
2A.5.2 Dendroseismology .................................. 117
Chapter 2B: Sub-Aqueous Paleoseismology ....................... 779
2B.1 Introduction ............................................. 119
2B.1.1 Scope of the Chapter .............................. 119
2B.2 Mapping and Dating Paleoseismic Landforms Offshore ....... 120
2B.2.1 Submarine Mapping and Imaging Methods ............. 120
2B.2.2 Dating Submarine Structures, Landforms, and
Deposits Using Paleoseismic Stratigraphy .......... 126
2B.3 Locating Primary Evidence: Active Faulting and
Structures ............................................... 133
2B.3.1 Direct Fault Investigations ....................... 133
2B.3.2 Off-Fault Investigation ........................... 141
2B.4 Locating Secondary Evidence: Landslides, Turbidites,
Submarine Tsunami Deposits ............................... 143
2B.4.1 Distinguishing Earthquake and Nonearthquake
Triggering Mechanisms ............................. 145
2B.4.2 Turbidite Paleoseismology ......................... 151
2B.4.3 Offshore Tsunami Deposits ......................... 161
2B.4.4 Lacustrine Environments ........................... 163
2B.4.5 Submarine Landslides Triggered by Earthquakes ..... 168
2B.4.6 Coeval Fault Motion and Fluid Venting Evidence .... 169
Chapter 3: Paleoseismology in Extensional Tectonic
Environments ...................................... 777
3.1 Introduction ............................................. 171
3.1.1 Styles, Scales, and Environments of Extensional
Deformation ....................................... 172
3.1.2 The Earthquake Deformation Cycle in Extensional
Environments ...................................... 175
3.1.3 Historic Analog Earthquakes ....................... 178
3.2 Geomorphic Evidence of Paleoearthquakes .................. 179
3.2.1 Tectonic Geomorphology of Normal Fault Blocks ..... 181
3.2.2 Features of Bedrock Fault Planes and Other Rock
Surfaces .......................................... 184
3.2.3 Formation of Fault Scarps in Unconsolidated
Deposits .......................................... 186
3.2.4 Degradation of Fault Scarps in Unconsolidated
Deposits .......................................... 199
3.2.5 Spatial and Temporal Variations in Surface
Displacement ...................................... 204
3.2.6 Geomorphic Features Formed by Single and
Recurrent Faulting ................................ 207
3.3 Stratigraphic Evidence of Paleoearthquakes ............... 216
3.3.1 Characteristics of Near-Surface Normal Faults in
Section ........................................... 217
3.3.2 Distinguishing Tectonic from Depositional
Features .......................................... 221
3.3.3 Sedimentation and Soil Formation in the Fault
Zone .............................................. 226
3.3.4 Measuring Displacement on Normal Fault
Exposures ......................................... 242
3.3.5 Distinguishing Creep Displacement from Episodic
Displacement ...................................... 244
3.4 Dating Paleoearthquakes .................................. 245
3.4.1 Direct Dating of the Exposed Fault Plane .......... 245
3.4.2 Direct Dating via Scarp Degradation Modeling ...... 247
3.4.3 Age Estimates from Soil Development on Fault
Scarps ............................................ 251
3.4.4 Bracketing the Age of Faulting by Dating
Geomorphic Surfaces ............................... 253
3.4.5 Bracketing the Age of Faulting by Dating
Displaced Deposits ................................ 254
3.4.6 Bracketing the Age of Faulting by Dating
Colluvial Wedges .................................. 255
3.4.7 Age Estimates from Cosmogenic Nuclides in Depth
Profiles on Fault Scarps .......................... 259
3.5 Interpreting the Paleoseismic History by
Retrodeformation ......................................... 260
3.5.1 Types of Retrodeformations ........................ 261
3.5.2 Assumptions Used when Restoring Strata to
their Prefaulting Geometry ........................ 261
3.5.3 Accounting for Soil Development in
Retrodeformation .................................. 264
3.6 Distinguishing Tectonic from Nontectonic Normal Faults ... 266
3.6.1 Tectonic, but Nonseismogenic Normal Faults ........ 266
3.6.2 Nontectonic, but Seismogenic Normal Faults ........ 267
3.6.3 Nontectonic and Nonseismogenic Normal Faults ...... 267
Chapter 4: Paleoseismology of Volcanic Environments ........... 277
4.1 Introduction ............................................. 271
4.2 Volcano-Extensional Structures ........................... 273
4.2.1 Worldwide Examples of Volcano-Extensional
Structures ........................................ 273
4.2.2 Central Volcanoes and Calderas .................... 278
4.2.3 Volcanic Rift Zones ............................... 279
4.2.4 Magma-Induced Slope Instability ................... 289
4.3 Criteria for Field Recognition of Volcano-Extensional
Features ................................................. 290
4.3.1 Results of Empirical and Numerical Modeling ....... 290
4.3.2 Volcano-Tectonic Geomorphology .................... 292
4.3.3 Geophysical Methods ............................... 294
4.3.4 Geodetic Remote-Sensing Techniques ................ 294
4.4 Paleoseismological Implications and Methods .............. 295
4.4.1 Excavation ........................................ 296
4.4.2 Geochronology ..................................... 298
4.4.3 Recurrence Intervals .............................. 298
4.4.4 Maximum Magnitude ................................. 299
4.5 Conclusions .............................................. 312
4.6 Information on the Companion Web site .................... 314
Chapter 5: Paleoseismology of Compressional Tectonic
Environments ...................................... 315
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 315
5.1.1 Organization of This Chapter ...................... 316
5.1.2 Styles, Scales, and Environments of Deformation ... 316
5.1.3 The Earthquake Deformation Cycle of Reverse
Faults ............................................ 322
5.1.4 Historic Analog Earthquakes ....................... 323
5.2 Geomorphic Evidence of Reverse Paleoearthquakes .......... 327
5.2.1 Initial Morphology of Reverse and Thrust Fault
Scarps ............................................ 328
5.2.2 Degradation of Thrust Fault Scarps ................ 329
5.2.3 Interaction of Thrust Fault Scarps with
Geomorphic Surfaces ............................... 330
5.2.4 Slip Rate Studies ................................. 334
5.2.5 Spatial and Temporal Variations in Surface
Displacement ...................................... 334
5.3 Stratigraphic Evidence of Reverse and Thrust
Paleoearthquakes ......................................... 337
5.3.1 General Style of Deformation on Reverse Faults
in Section ........................................ 338
5.3.2 Trenching Techniques .............................. 340
5.3.3 Structure and Evolution of Reverse-Fault Scarps ... 342
5.3.4 Structure and Evolution of Thrust Fault Scarps .... 346
5.3.5 Stratigraphic Bracketed Offset .................... 350
5.3.6 Fault-Onlap Sedimentary Sequences ................. 351
5.3.7 Summary of Stratigraphic Evidence for Thrust
Paleoearthquakes .................................. 352
5.3.8 Distinguishing Creep Displacement from Episodic
Displacement ...................................... 352
5.4 Dating Paleoearthquakes .................................. 354
5.4.1 Direct Dating of the Exposed Fault Plane .......... 354
5.4.2 Direct Dating via Scarp Degradation Modeling ...... 354
5.4.3 Age Estimates from Soil Development on Fault
Scarps ............................................ 356
5.4.4 Bracketing the Age of Faulting by Dating
Displaced Deposits ................................ 356
5.5 Interpreting the Paleoseismic History by
Retrodeformation ......................................... 358
5.5.1 Rigid-Block Retrodeformations ..................... 358
5.5.2 Plastic Retrodeformations ......................... 358
5.6 Distinguishing Seismogenic from Nonseismogenic Reverse
Faults ................................................... 361
5.6.1 Tectonic, but Nonseismogenic Reverse Faults ....... 361
5.6.2 Nontectonic, but Seismogenic Reverse Faults ....... 365
5.6.3 Nontectonic and Nonseismogenic Reverse Faults ..... 365
5.7 Hazards Due to Reverse Surface Faulting .................. 366
5.8 Paleoseismic Evidence of Coseismic Folding ............... 368
5.8.1 Geomorphic Evidence of Active Surface Folding ..... 368
5.8.2 Stratigraphic Evidence of Active Surface
Folding ........................................... 371
5.8.3 Assessing Seismic Hazards from Blind Thrusts ...... 375
5.9 Paleoseismology of Subduction Zones ...................... 379
5.9.1 Introduction ...................................... 379
5.9.2 Segmentation of Subduction Zones .................. 382
5.9.3 Surface Faulting: Upper Plate Versus Plate-
Boundary Structures ............................... 383
5.9.4 Historic Subduction Earthquakes as Modern
Analogs for Paleoearthquakes ...................... 385
5.9.5 The Earthquake Deformation Cycle in Subduction
Zones ............................................. 388
5.10 Late Quaternary Sea Level ................................ 390
5.10.1 Sea-Level Index Points along Erosional
Shorelines ........................................ 392
5.10.2 Sea-Level Index Points Along Depositional
Shorelines ........................................ 393
5.11 The Coseismic Earthquake Horizon ......................... 395
5.11.1 Characteristics of Coseismic Earthquake
Horizons .......................................... 395
5.11.2 Earthquake-Killed Trees ........................... 398
5.11.3 Tsunami Deposits .................................. 398
5.11.4 Coral Atolls and Reefs ............................ 402
5.11.5 Summary of Stratigraphic Evidence for
Paleoseismicity ................................... 402
5.12 Paleoseismic Evidence of Coseismic Uplift ................ 403
5.12.1 Alaska ............................................ 404
5.12.2 Cascadia Subduction Zone .......................... 406
5.13 Paleoseismic Evidence of Coseismic Subsidence ............ 411
5.13.1 Alaska ............................................ 411
5.13.2 Cascadia Subduction Zone .......................... 415
5.13.3 Ambiguities in Characterizing Subduction
Paleoearthquakes .................................. 419
Chapter 6: Paleoseismology of Strike-Slip Tectonic
Environments ...................................... 421
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 421
6.1.1 Styles, Scales, and Environments of Deformation ... 422
6.1.2 Segmentation of Strike-Slip Faults ................ 427
6.1.3 The Earthquake Deformation Cycle of Strike-Slip
Faults ............................................ 427
6.1.4 Historic Analog Earthquakes ....................... 428
6.2 Geomorphic Evidence of Paleoearthquakes .................. 432
6.2.1 Landforms Used as Piercing Points ................. 433
6.2.2 Using Lateral Offsets to Calculate Long-Term
Slip Rates ........................................ 452
6.2.3 Spatial and Temporal Variations in Surface
Displacement ...................................... 456
6.2.4 Reconstructing Individual Earthquake
Displacements ..................................... 459
6.3 Stratigraphic Evidence of Paleoearthquakes ............... 462
6.3.1 General Style of Deformation on Strike-Slip
Faults in Section ................................. 463
6.3.2 Sedimentation and Weathering in Strike-Slip
Fault Zones ....................................... 464
6.3.3 Trenching Techniques .............................. 468
6.3.4 Stratigraphic Indicators of Paleoearthquakes ...... 473
6.3.5 Measuring Lateral Displacements from
Stratigraphic Data ................................ 479
6.3.6 Distinguishing Creep Displacement from Episodic
Displacement ...................................... 489
6.4 Dating Paleoearthquakes .................................. 489
6.5 Interpreting the Paleoseismic History by
Retrodeformation ......................................... 491
6.5.1 Retrodeforming the Trench Log ..................... 493
6.6 Distinguishing Seismogenic from Nonseismogenic Strike-
Slip Faults .............................................. 495
6.6.1 Tectonic, But Nonseismogenic Strike-Slip Faults ... 495
6.6.2 Nontectonic and Nonseismogenic Strike-Slip
Faults ............................................ 496
Chapter 7: Using Liquefaction-Induced and Other Soft-
Sediment Features for Paleoseismic Analysis ....... 497
7.1 Introduction ............................................. 497
7.2 Overview of the Formation of Liquefaction-Induced
Features ................................................. 499
7.2.1 Process of Liquefaction and Fluidization .......... 503
7.2.2 Factors Affecting Liquefaction Susceptibility
and Effects of Fluidization ....................... 505
7.3 Criteria for an Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction Origin ... 509
7.4 Historic and Prehistoric Liquefaction—Selected Studies ... 510
7.4.1 Coastal South Carolina ............................ 510
7.4.2 New Madrid Seismic Zone ........................... 518
7.4.3 Wabash Valley Seismic Zone ........................ 535
7.4.4 Coastal Washington State .......................... 540
7.5 Features Generally of Nonseismic or Unknown Origin ....... 546
7.5.1 Terrestrial Disturbance Features .................. 547
7.5.2 Features Formed in Subaqueous Environments ........ 548
7.5.3 Features Formed by Weathering ..................... 556
7.5.4 Features Formed in a Periglacial Environment ...... 557
7.6 Estimation of Strength of Paleoearthquakes ............... 558
7.6.1 Association with Modified Mercalli Intensity ...... 558
7.6.2 Magnitude Bound ................................... 558
7.6.3 Engineering-Based Procedures ...................... 560
7.6.4 Overview of Estimates of Magnitude ................ 563
7.6.5 Negative Evidence ................................. 564
Chapter 8: Using Landslides for Paleoseismic Analysis ........ 565
8.1 Introduction ............................................. 565
8.2 Identifying Landslides ................................... 566
8.3 Determining Landslide Ages ............................... 568
8.3.1 Historical Methods ................................ 568
8.3.2 Dendrochronology .................................. 568
8.3.3 Radiometric and Cosmogenic Dating ................. 569
8.3.4 Lichenometry ...................................... 570
8.3.5 Weathering Rinds .................................. 570
8.3.6 Pollen Analysis ................................... 570
8.3.7 Geomorphic Analysis ............................... 570
8.4 Interpreting an Earthquake Origin for Landslides ......... 571
8.4.1 Regional Analysis of Landslides ................... 571
8.4.2 Landslide Morphology .............................. 574
8.4.3 Sackungen ......................................... 575
8.4.4 Sediment from Earthquake-Triggered Landslides ..... 577
8.4.5 Landslides That Straddle Fault .................... 578
8.4.6 Precariously Balanced Rocks ....................... 578
8.4.7 Speleoseismology .................................. 579
8.4.8 Summary ........................................... 580
8.5 Analysis of the Seismic Origin of a Landslide ............ 580
8.5.1 Physical Setting of Landslides in the New Madrid
Seismic Zone ...................................... 581
8.5.2 Geotechnical Investigation ........................ 581
8.5.3 Static (Aseismic) Slope-Stability Analysis ........ 583
8.5.4 Dynamic (Seismic) Slope-Stability Analysis ........ 584
8.5.5 Analysis of Unknown Seismic Conditions ............ 595
8.6 Interpreting Results of Paleoseismic Landslide Studies ... 596
8.6.1 Characteristics of Landslides Triggered by
Earthquakes ....................................... 596
8.6.2 Interpreting Earthquake Magnitude and Location .... 599
8.7 Final Comments ........................................... 600
Index ......................................................... 603
Supplemental materials, including a chapter on Applications
of Paleoseismic Data to Seismic Hazard Assessment and
the book's Appendices and References, can be found on
the companion website at
http://www.elsevierdirect.com/companions/9780123735768
|
