 | Sarkar T.K. Physics of multiantenna systems and broadband processing. - Sarkar T.K., Salazar-Palma M., Mokole Eric L.; with contributions from: Burintramart S. et al. - Hoboken: Wiley, 2008. - xxi, 562 p.: ill. - (Wiley series in microwave and optical engineering). - Ind.: p.553-562. - ISBN 978-0-470-19040-1
|
Preface ........................................................ xv
Acknowledgments ............................................... xxi
Chapter 1 What Is an Antenna and How Does It Work? ............. 1
1.0 Summary ................................................. 1
1.1 Historical Overview of Maxwell's Equations .............. 2
1.2 Review of Maxwell-Heaviside-Hertz Equations ............. 4
1.2.1 Faraday's Law ..................................... 4
1.2.2 Generalized Ampere's Law .......................... 7
1.2.3 Generalized Gauss's Law of Electrostatics ......... 8
1.2.4 Generalized Gauss's Law of Magnetostatics ......... 9
1.2.5 Equation of Continuity ........................... 10
1.3 Solution of Maxwell's Equations ........................ 10
1.4 Radiation and Reception Properties of a Point Source
Antenna in Frequency and in Time Domain ................ 15
1.4.1 Radiation of Fields from Point Sources ........... 15
1.4.1.1 Far Field in Frequency Domain of
a Point Radiator ......................... 16
1.4.1.2 Far Field in Time Domain of a Point
Radiator ................................. 17
1.4.2 Reception Properties of a Point Receiver ......... 18
1.5 Radiation and Reception Properties of Finite-Sized
Dipole-Like Structures in Frequency and in Time ........ 20
1.5.1 Radiation Fields from Wire-like Structures in
the Frequency Domain ............................. 20
1.5.2 Radiation Fields from Wire-like Structures in
the Time Domain .................................. 21
1.5.3 Induced Voltage on a Finite-Sized Receive
Wire-like Structure Due to a Transient Incident
Field ............................................ 21
1.6 Conclusion ............................................. 22
References ............................................. 57
Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Antenna Theory in the Frequency
Domain .............................................. 25
2.0 Summary ................................................ 25
2.1 Field Produced by a Hertzian Dipole .................... 25
2.2 Concept of Near and Far Fields ......................... 28
2.3 Field Radiated by a Small Circular Loop ................ 30
2.4 Field Produced by a Finite-Sized Dipole ................ 32
2.5 Radiation Field from a Linear Antenna .................. 34
2.6 Near- and Far-Field Properties of Antennas ............. 36
2.6.1 What Is Beamforming Using Antennas ............... 36
2.6.2 Use of Spatial Antenna Diversity ................. 43
2.7 The Mathematics and Physics of an Antenna Array ........ 46
2.8 Propagation Modeling in the Frequency Domain ........... 49
2.9 Conclusion ............................................. 57
References ............................................. 57
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of an Antenna in the Time Domain ....... 59
3.0 Summary ................................................ 59
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 59
3.2 UWB Input Pulse ........................................ 61
3.3 Travelling-Wave Antenna ................................ 62
3.4 Reciprocity Relation Between Antennas .................. 63
3.5 Antenna Simulations .................................... 65
3.6 Loaded Antennas ........................................ 65
3.6.1 Dipole ........................................... 65
3.6.2 Bicones .......................................... 71
3.6.3 TEM Horn ......................................... 74
3.6.4 Log-Periodic ..................................... 78
3.6.5 Spiral ........................................... 80
3.7 Conventional Wideband Antennas ......................... 83
3.7.1 Volcano Smoke .................................... 83
3.7.2 Diamond Dipole ................................... 85
3.7.3 Monofilar Helix .................................. 86
3.7.4 Conical Spiral ................................... 88
3.7.5 Monoloop ......................................... 90
3.7.6 Quad-Ridged Circular Horn ........................ 91
3.7.7 Bi-Blade with Century Bandwidth .................. 93
3.7.8 Cone-Blade ....................................... 94
3.7.9 Vivaldi .......................................... 96
3.7.10 Impulse Radiating Antenna (IRA) ................. 97
3.7.11 Circular Disc Dipole ............................ 99
3.7.12 Bow-Tie ........................................ 100
3.7.13 Planar Slot .................................... 101
3.8 Experimental Verification of the Wideband Responses
from Antennas ......................................... 102
3.9 Conclusion ............................................ 108
References ............................................ 109
Chapter 4 A Look at the Concept of Channel Capacity from
a Maxwellian Viewpoint ............................. 113
4.0 Summary ............................................... 113
4.1 Introduction .......................................... 114
4.2 History of Entropy and Its Evolution .................. 117
4.3 Different Formulations for the Channel Capacity ....... 118
4.4 Information Content of a Waveform ..................... 124
4.5 Numerical Examples Illustrating the Relevance of
the Maxwellian Physics in Characterizing the Channel
Capacity .............................................. 130
4.5.1 Matched Versus Unmatched Receiving Dipole
Antenna with a Matched Transmitting Antenna
Operating in Free Space ......................... 131
4.5.2 Use of Directive Versus Nondirective Matched
Transmitting Antennas Located at Different
Heights above the Earth for a Fixed Matched
Receiver Height above Ground .................... 133
4.5.2.1 Transmitting Horn Antenna at a Height
of 20 m ................................. 135
4.5.2.2 Transmitting Dipole Antenna at
a Height of 20 m ........................ 136
4.5.2.3 Orienting the Transmitting Horn or
the Dipole Antenna Located at a Height
of 20 m Towards the Receiving Antenna ... 137
4.5.2.4 The Transmitting Horn and Dipole
Antenna Located at a Height of 2 m
above Ground ............................ 137
4.5.2.5 Transmitting Horn and Dipole Antenna
Located Close to the Ground but Tilted
Towards the Sky ......................... 138
4.5.2.6 Channel Capacity as a Function of
the Height of the Transmitting Dipole
Antenna from the Earth .................. 139
4.5.2.7 Presence of a Dielectric Wall
Interrupting the Direct Line-of-sight
Between Transmitting and Receiving
Antennas ................................ 141
4.5.2.8 Increase in Channel Capacity when
Matched Receiving Antenna Is
Encapsulated by a Dielectric Box ........ 143
4.6 Conclusion ............................................ 146
4.7 Appendix: History of Entropy and Its Evolution ........ 148
References ............................................ 164
Chapter 5 Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output (MIMO) Antenna
Systems ............................................ 167
5.0 Summary ............................................... 167
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 168
5.2 Diversity in Wireless Communications .................. 168
5.2.1 Time Diversity .................................. 169
5.2.2 Frequency Diversity ............................. 170
5.2.3 Space Diversity ................................. 170
5.3 Multiantenna Systems .................................. 172
5.4 Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output (MIMO) Systems ......... 173
5.5 Channel Capacity of the MIMO Antenna Systems .......... 176
5.6 Channel Known at the Transmitter ...................... 178
5.6.1 Water-filling Algorithm ......................... 179
5.7 Channel Unknown at the Transmitter .................... 180
5.7.1 Alamouti Scheme ................................. 180
5.8 Diversity-Multiplexing Tradeoff ....................... 182
5.9 MIMO Under a Vector Electromagnetic Methodology ....... 183
5.9.1 MIMO Versus SISO ................................ 184
5.10 More Appealing Results for a MIMO system .............. 189
5.10.1 Case Study: 1 .................................. 189
5.10.2 Case Study: 2 .................................. 190
5.10.3 Case Study: 3 .................................. 191
5.10.4 Case Study: 4 .................................. 194
5.10.5 Case Study: 5 .................................. 197
5.11 Physics of MIMO in a Nutshell ......................... 199
5.11.1 Line-of-Sight (LOS) MIMO Systems with
Parallel Antenna Elements Oriented Along
the Broadside Direction ........................ 200
5.11.2 Line-of-Sight MIMO Systems with Parallel
Antenna Elements Oriented Along the Broadside
Direction ...................................... 202
5.11.3 Non-line-of-Sight MIMO Systems with Parallel
Antenna Elements Oriented Along the Broadside
Direction ...................................... 204
5.12 Conclusion ............................................ 206
References ............................................ 207
Chapter 6 Use of the Output Energy Filter in Multiantenna
Systems for Adaptive Estimation .................... 209
6.0 Summary ............................................... 209
6.1 Various Forms of the Optimum Filters .................. 210
6.1.1 Matched Filter (Cross-correlation filter) ....... 211
6.1.2 A Wiener Filter ................................. 212
6.1.3 An Output Energy Filter (Minimum Variance
Filter) ......................................... 213
6.1.4 Example of the Filters .......................... 214
6.2 Direct Data Domain Least Squares Approaches to
Adaptive Processing Based on a Single Snapshot of
Data .................................................. 215
6.2.1 Eigenvalue Method ............................... 218
6.2.2 Forward Method .................................. 220
6.2.3 Backward Method ................................. 221
6.2.4 Forward-Backward Method ......................... 222
6.2.5 Real Time Implementation of the Adaptive
Procedure ....................................... 224
6.3 Direct Data Domain Least Squares Approach to
Space-Time Adaptive Processing ........................ 226
6.3.1 Two-Dimensional Generalized Eigenvalue
Processor ....................................... 230
6.3.2 Least Squares Forward Processor ................. 232
6.3.3 Least Squares Backward Processor ................ 236
6.3.4 Least Squares Forward-Backward Processor ........ 237
6.4 Application of the Direct Data Domain Least Squares
Techniques to Airborne Radar for Space-Time Adaptive
Processing ............................................ 238
6.5 Conclusion ............................................ 246
References ............................................ 247
Chapter 7 Minimum Norm Property for the Sum of the Adaptive
Weights in Adaptive or in Space-Time Processing .... 249
7.0 Summary ............................................... 249
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 250
7.2 Review of the Direct Data Domain Least Squares
Approach .............................................. 251
7.3 Review of Space-Time Adaptive Processing Based on
the D3LS Method ....................................... 253
7.4 Minimum Norm Property of the Adaptive Weights at
the DOA of the SOI for the I-D Case and at Doppler
Frequency and DOA for STAP ............................ 255
7.5 Numerical Examples .................................... 258
7.6 Conclusion ............................................ 273
References ............................................ 274
Chapter 8 Using Real Weights in Adaptive and Space-Time
Processing ......................................... 275
8.0 Summary ............................................... 275
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 275
8.2 Formulation of a Direct Data Domain Least Squares
Approach Using Real Weights ........................... 277
8.2.1 Forward Method .................................. 277
8.2.2 Backward Method ................................. 281
8.2.3 Forward-Backward Method ......................... 282
8.3 Simulation Results for Adaptive Processsing ........... 283
8.4 Formulation of an Amplitude-only Direct Data Domain
Least Squares Space-Time Adaptive Processing .......... 289
8.4.1 Forward Method .................................. 289
8.4.2 Backward Method ................................. 291
8.4.3 Forward-Backward Method ......................... 292
8.5 Simulation Results .................................... 292
8.6 Conclusion ............................................ 299
References ............................................ 300
Chapter 9 Phase-Only Adaptive and Space-Time Processing ...... 303
9.0 Summary ............................................... 303
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 303
9.2 Formulation of the Direct Data Domain Least Squares
Solution for a Phase-Only Adaptive System ............. 304
9.2.1 Forward Method .................................. 304
9.2.2 Backward Method ................................. 310
9.2.3 Forward-Backward Method ......................... 310
9.3 Simulation Results .................................... 311
9.4 Formulation of a Phase-Only Direct Data Domain Least
Squares Space-Time Adaptive Processing ................ 318
9.4.1 Forward Method .................................. 318
9.4.2 Backward Method ................................. 318
9.4.3 Forward-Backward Method ......................... 318
9.5 Simulation Results .................................... 319
9.6 Conclusion ............................................ 322
References ............................................ 322
Chapter 10 Simultaneous Multiple Adaptive Beamforming ........ 323
10.0 Summary ............................................... 323
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 323
10.2 Formulation of a Direct Data Domain Approach for
Multiple Beamforming .................................. 324
10.2.1 Forward Method ................................. 324
10.2.2 Backward Method ................................ 327
10.2.3 Forward-Backward Method ........................ 328
10.3 Simulation Results .................................... 328
10.4 Formulation of a Direct Data Domain Least Squares
Approach for Multiple Beamforming in Space-Time
Adaptive Processing ................................... 332
10.4.1 Forward Method ................................. 332
10.4.2 Backward Method ................................ 336
10.4.3 Forward-Backward Method ........................ 337
10.5 Simulation Results .................................... 338
10.6 Conclusion ............................................ 345
References ............................................ 345
Chapter 11 Performance Comparison Between Statistical-Based
and Direct Data Domain Least Squares Space-Time
Adaptive Processing Algorithms .................... 347
11.0 Summary ............................................... 347
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 347
11.2 Description of the Various Signals of Interest ........ 348
11.2.1 Modeling of the Signal-of-Interest ............. 349
11.2.2 Modeling of the Clutter ........................ 349
11.2.3 Modeling of the Jammer ......................... 350
11.2.4 Modeling of the Discrete Interferers ........... 350
11.3 Statistical-Based STAP Algorithms ..................... 351
11.3.1 Full-Rank Optimum STAP ......................... 351
11.3.2 Reduced-Rank STAP (Relative Importance of
the Eigenbeam Method) .......................... 352
11.3.3 Reduced-Rank STAP (Based on the Generalized
Sidelobe Canceller) ............................ 353
11.4 Direct Data Domain Least Squares STAP Algorithms ...... 356
11.5 Channel Mismatch ...................................... 356
11.6 Simulation Results .................................... 357
11.7 Conclusion ............................................ 368
References ............................................ 368
Chapter 12 Approximate Compensation for Mutual Coupling
Using the In Situ Antenna Element Patterns ........ 371
12.0 Summary ............................................... 371
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 371
12.2 Formulation of the New Direct Data Domain Least
Squares Approach Approximately Compensating for
the Effects of Mutual Coupling Using the In Situ
Element Patterns ...................................... 373
12.2.1 Forward Method ................................. 373
12.2.3 Backward Method ................................ 376
12.2.4 Forward-Backward Method ........................ 377
12.3 Simulation Results .................................... 378
12.4 Reason for a Decline in the Performance of
the Algorithm When the Intensity of the Jammer Is
Increased ............................................. 386
12.5 Conclusion ............................................ 386
References ............................................ 386
Chapter 13 Signal Enhancement Through Polarization
Adaptivity on Transmit in a Near-Field MIMO
Environment ....................................... 389
13.0 Summary ............................................... 389
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 389
13.2 Signal Enhancement Methodology Through Adaptivity on
Transmit .............................................. 391
13.3 Exploitation of the Polarization Properties in
the Proposed Methodology .............................. 395
13.4 Numerical Simulations ................................. 395
13.4.1 Example 1 ...................................... 396
13.4.2 Example 2 ...................................... 402
13.4.3 Example 3 ...................................... 406
13.5 Conclusion ............................................ 410
References ............................................ 411
Chapter 14 Direction of Arrival Estimation by Exploiting
Unitary Transform in the Matrix Pencil Method
and Its Comparison with ESPRIT .................... 413
14.0 Summary ............................................... 413
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 413
14.2 The Unitary Transform ................................. 415
14.3 1-D Unitary Matrix Pencil Method Revisited ............ 416
14.4 Summary of the 1-D Unitary Matrix Pencil Method ....... 419
14.5 The 2-D Unitary Matrix Pencil Method .................. 419
14.5.1 Pole Pairing for the 2-D Unitary Matrix
Pencil Method .................................. 425
14.5.2 Computational Complexity ....................... 426
14.5.3 Summary of the 2-D Unitary Matrix Pencil
Method ......................................... 426
14.6 Simulation Results Related to the 2-D Unitary Matrix
Pencil Method ......................................... 427
14.7 The ESPRIT Method ..................................... 430
14.8 Multiple Snapshot-Based Matrix Pencil Method .......... 432
14.9 Comparison of Accuracy and Efficiency Between ESPRIT
and the Matrix Pencil Method .......................... 432
14.10 Conclusion ............................................ 435
References ............................................ 436
Chapter 15 DOA Estimation Using Electrically Small Matched
Dipole Antennas and the Associated Cramer-Rao
Bound ............................................. 439
15.0 Summary ............................................... 439
15.1 Introduction .......................................... 440
15.2 DOA Estimation Using a Realistic Antenna Array ........ 441
15.2.1 Transformation Matrix Technique ................ 441
15.3 Cramer-Rao Bound for DOA Estimation ................... 444
15.4 DOA Estimation Using 0.1 λ Long Antennas .............. 445
15.5 DOA Estimation Using Different Antenna Array
Configurations ........................................ 448
15.6 Conclusion ............................................ 461
References ............................................ 462
Chapter 16 Non-Conventional Least Squares Optimization for
DOA Estimation Using Arbitrary-Shaped Antenna
Arrays ............................................ 463
16.0 Summary ............................................... 463
16.1 Introduction .......................................... 463
16.2 Signal Modeling ....................................... 464
16.3 DFT-Based DOA Estimation .............................. 465
16.4 Non-conventional Least Squares Optimization ........... 466
16.5 Simulation Results .................................... 467
16.5.1 An Array of Linear Uniformly Spaced Dipoles .... 468
16.5.2 An Array of Linear Non-uniformly Spaced
Dipoles ........................................ 470
16.5.3 An Array Consisting of Mixed Antenna
Elements ....................................... 471
16.5.4 An Antenna Array Operating in the Presence of
Near-Field Scatterers .......................... 472
16.5.5 Sensitivity of the Procedure Due to a Small
Change in the Operating Environment ............ 473
16.5.6 Sensitivity of the Procedure Due to a Large
Change in the Operating Environment ............ 474
16.5.7 An Array of Monopoles Mounted Underneath
an Aircraft .................................... 476
16.5.8 A Non-uniformly Spaced Nonplanar Array of
Monopoles Mounted Under an Aircraft ............ 477
16.6 Conclusion ............................................ 479
References ............................................ 479
Chapter 17 Broadband Direction of Arrival Estimations Using
the Matrix Pencil Method .......................... 481
17.0 Summary ............................................... 481
17.1 Introduction .......................................... 481
17.2 Brief Overview of the Matrix Pencil Method ............ 482
17.3 Problem Formulation for Simultaneous Estimation of
DOA and the Frequency of the Signal ................... 488
17.4 Cramer-Rao Bound for the Direction of Arrival and
Frequency of the Signal ............................... 494
17.5 Example Using Isotropic Point Sources ................. 505
17.6 Example Using Realistic Antenna Elements .............. 512
17.7 Conclusion ............................................ 521
References ............................................ 521
Chapter 18 Adaptive Processing of Broadband Signals .......... 523
18.0 Summary ............................................... 523
18.1 Introduction .......................................... 523
18.2 Formulation of a Direct Data Domain Least Squares
Method for Adaptive Processing of Finite Bandwidth
Signals Having Different Frequencies .................. 524
18.2.1 Forward Method for Adaptive Processing of
Broadband Signals .............................. 524
18.2.2 Backward Method ................................ 529
18.2.3 Forward-Backward Method ........................ 529
18.3 Numerical Simulation Results .......................... 530
18.4 Conclusion ............................................ 535
References ............................................ 535
Chapter 19 Effect of Random Antenna Position Errors on
a Direct Data Domain Least Squares Approach for
Space-Time Adaptive Processing .................... 537
19.0 Summary ............................................... 537
19.1 Introduction .......................................... 537
19.2 EIRP Degradation of Array Antennas Due to Random
Position Errors ....................................... 540
19.3 Example of EIRP Degradation in Antenna Arrays ......... 544
19.4 Simulation Results .................................... 547
19.5 Conclusion ............................................ 551
References ............................................ 551
Index ......................................................... 553
|
|
