List of Chapters ......................................... i - iii
List of Tables ........................................... iv - vii
List of Figures .......................................... viii - x
Acknowledgements ......................................... xi - xii
Introduction ............................................ xiii - xv
List of Chapters
Part 1. Background to the Fieldwork in the Pabbi Hills
Chapter 1. The Palaeoanthropological Background to
the Investigations in the Pabbi Hills ............. 1-12
1. An East African genesis? .................................... 2
1.1. How well documented is the East African record? ....... 2
1.2. Where were those grasslands in which hominids
evolved? .............................................. 3
1.2.1. Hominids, grasslands and East Africa ........... 3
1.2.2. Hominids and grasslands before 2.5 Mya ago ..... 3
1.3. When did African hominids first live beyond the East
African Rift Valley? .................................. 4
1.4. What does the distribution of chimpanzees and
gorillas tell us? ..................................... 5
2. Out of Africa? .............................................. 5
2.1. Homo erectus and H. ergaster: a taxonomic
digression ............................................ 5
2.2. Homo ergaster (or H. erectus): the first hominid
outside Africa? ....................................... 5
2.3. Asia, the unknown continent ........................... 6
2.4. The earliest Eurasian evidence ........................ 8
3. Discussion ................................................. 12
Chapter 2. The Palaeontological Background to the Fieldwork
in the Pabbi Hills ............................... 13-23
2.1. Siwalik Biostratigraphy .............................. 13
2.1.1. History of research .......................... 14
2.1.2. Siwalik Zonation ............................. 17
2.1.3. The Upper Siwaliks. Tatrot, Pinjor, and
Boulder Conglomerate "Faunal Stages" ......... 18
2.1.4. Recent research into the Pinjor .............. 18
2.1.5. The Boulder Conglomerate Faunal Stage ........ 20
2.1.6. Summary ...................................... 20
2.2. Fossil hominid remains and fluvial landscapes ........ 20
2.3. Fossils, rivers and landscapes ....................... 22
Part 2. Results of the Surveys in the Pabbi Hills
Chapter 3. The Pabbi Hills. Introduction and Overview ...... 24-31
3.1. Fieldwork problems .................................... 25
3.2. Field procedures and survey methods ................... 26
3.2.1. Collecting strategy ........................... 26
3.2.2. Time-banding and stratigraphic zonation ....... 26
3.2. Field procedures and survey methods ................... 26
3.3. Recording methods ..................................... 29
3.4. Relationship between fossil occurrences and
palaeolandscapes ...................................... 31
Chapter 4. Magnetic Polarity Stratigraphy of Upper Siwalik
Sediments in the Pabbi Hills (Helen Rendell) .... 32-36
Chapter 5. The 1986 survey (fossil occurrences 14 - 156)
of Sandstone 12 and adjacent units ............... 37-88
Set 1. The North-East Side of Kanarawala Kas. 14-25,
42-50 and 109 ........................................ 39
Set 2. The West side of Kanarawala Kas (26 - 41) ............ 40
Set 3. Fossil occurrences 51 - 63 ........................... 42
Set 4. Fossil occurrences 64 - 75 ........................... 42
Set 5. Fossil occurrences 74 - 85 (Site 73 to the G.T.
Road), Sandstone 12 .................................. 43
Set 6. The badlands in front of Sandstone 12. (nos. 110 -
150, even numbers only) .............................. 45
Set 7. Nos. 111 -137 (odd numbers only), Sandstone 12,
south of the G.T. Road ............................... 46
Set 8. Nos. 139-153 (odd numbers only), 154, 156; older
than Sandstone 12, south of the G.T. Road ............ 46
Set 9. The survey of Sandstone 14 (fossil occurrences
90 - 108) ............................................ 47
Tables accompanying Chapter 5 ............................ 48-88
Chapter 6. The 1987 survey of the Pabbi Hills .............. 89-187
Set 1. Choawala Kas headwaters (1.7-1.9 Mya-old):
200-218 (even nos. only), 365, 367, 388 .............. 89
Set 2. Choawala West (1.4 - 1.7 Mya-old). 222 - 232 (even
numbers); also 332, 334, 336 ......................... 94
Set 3. Choawala West, 362 area (1.7 - 1.9 Mya-old):
338 - 366 ............................................ 95
Set 4. Choawala East (1.7- 1.9 Mya-old): (Even numbers
236 - 260 for Happy Valley, and 262, 264, 416,
418, 434 and 518, Death Valley) ...................... 96
Set 5. Bangial Kas and Choawala Kas (mostly 1.4 -
1.7 Mya-old). 225-255, 270, 272 ...................... 99
Set 6. Sohawa Kas. the 203 horizon (1.9 - 2.2 Mya-old) ..... 100
Set 7. Sohawa Kas headwaters (205, 207, 209) and Sohawa
Kas West (217-223 (odd nos.only), 288, 316,
and 318): 1.8 - 2.2 Mya-old ......................... 101
Set 8. Sohawa Kas West (1.7 -1.9 Mya-old): 276-286
(even nos. only) .................................... 102
Set 9. Sohawa East, 291 area (1.9 - 2.2 Mya-old): 237,
257, 263, 273-295 (odd. nos.), 296-308 (even nos.),
320-330 (even nos.), 315-319 (odd nos.), 376;
305, 309, 311,319 ................................... 104
Set 10.The Flag Hill area (1.7 -1.9 Mya-old): 327-335
(odd nos.), 368-372 (even nos. only) ................ 106
Set 11.West Branch of Kotha Kas (various numbers from 337
to 535) .............................................
Set 12.West Branch of Kotha Kas (397, 399, 477, 501- 511,
odd. nos. only) ..................................... 107
Set 13.West Branch of Kotha Kas (the 481 and 489 areas) .... 107
Set 14.West Branch of Kotha Kas (343-357, 383-395) ......... 109
Set 15.The Viaduct area (1.9 - 2.2 Mya-old): 359-363,
369-381 (odd nos. only) ............................. 110
Set 16.East Branch of Kotha Kas (1.9-2.2 Mya-old):
407-425 (odd nos. only) and 499 ..................... 110
Set 17.Kotha Kas (1.9-2.2 Mya-old): 427-46
(odd nos. only) ..................................... 111
Set 18.Head of Kotha Kas, between Happy and Death Valleys
(71.7-1.9 Mya-old): 398 - 414 (even nos. only) ...... 112
Set 19.East Branch of Kotha Kas (453-475, odd.nos. only) ... 113
Set 20.Sandstones 14-16, Choawala Kas (0.9 -1.2 Mya-old):
500-510, 516, 520-528 (even nos. only) .............. 113
Set 21.Ratial and Dhorian Kas (382-386, 420-432) ........... 114
Set 22.The badlands north of the G.T. Road
(436-528 even nos. only) ............................ 114
Tables accompanying Chapter 6 .......................... 117-187
Chapter 7. The 1989 and 1990 surveys of the Pabbi Hills ... 188-221
Area 1. The Bulani area (Bandgwara Kas. 600 - 607) ......... 188
Area 2. Besa Kas (608-615); Pir Jaffa ( 616-625) ........... 188
Area 3. The Baroth area (622-640, odd and even numbers) .... 189
Area 4. Locality 642 to Ban Barilla (637-648) .............. 192
Area 5. Ban Barilla - Doga (649-674) ....................... 192
Area 6. Hairpin bend (657-685) ............................. 192
Tables accompanying Chapter 7 .......................... 193-221
Chapter 8. The stone artefacts from the Pabbi Hills
(Linda Hurcombe) ............................... 222-292
Section A. The context of the survey and the lithic
recording system ................................ 222
Stone collecting and recording systems ...... 223-228
Section B. Results, analysis and discussion ............ 229-238
Discussion: the overall nature and
affinities of the Pabbi Hills lithic
material .................................... 235-238
Section C. Taphonomic investigations of the
distribution, movement and flaking of
stone ....................................... 238-249
The occurrence of natural stone in the
Pabbi Hills ................................. 238-239
Pebble beds in modern rivers .................... 240
Survey data (occurrences 346, 218, 387, 722,
625 ......................................... 240-243
Investigations at 269 and surrounding
areas ....................................... 243-244
Places with pottery ............................. 244
Experiments monitoring falling fractures,
erosion, and tool movement .................. 244-249
Falling fractures ............................ 244
Rates of erosion and stone artefact
movement ..................................... 245
Gully and slope experiments .............. 246-249
Section D. Interpreting patterns within the assemblage:
discussion and conclusions .................. 249-252
Conclusions ................................. 251-252
Tables accompanying Chapter 8 ............... 253-268
Drawings of stone tools accompanying
Chapter 8 ................................... 269-281
Illustrations accompanying Chapter 8 ........ 282-292
Chapter 9. The excavations of fossil localities 73, 362
and 642 ........................................ 293-371
Locality 73 (R.Dennell) ................................ 294-313
Locality 362 (M. Beech and M. Anwar) ................... 314-327
Locality 642 (M. Beech and M. Anwar) ................... 328-352
Taphonomic observations of localities 73, 362 and 642
(R. Coard) ............................................. 353-371
Observations at a distance. an interpretation of
locality 73 ............................................ 353-355
A taphonomic analysis of Locality 362 .................. 355-361
A taphonomic analysis of Locality 642 .................. 362-371
Part 3. Analaysis
Chapter 10. The fossil vertebrate record of the Pabbi
Hills: palaeontology and biostratigraphy ...... 372-411
Part 1. Fossil remains from the Pabbi Hills:
Artiodactyla ................................... 373-382
i) Bovid teeth and horns ............................... 373-377
ii) Cervid teeth and antler ............................ 377-378
Artiodactyla (Bovid/Cervid) post-cranial remains ........... 379
iii) Giraffidae ............................................ 380
iv) Suidae ................................................. 381
v) Perissodactyla: Equidae ................................. 382
Hipparion or Equus? ..................................... 383
Equid post-cranial specimens ............................ 384
vi) Rhinoceritidae and vii) Proboscidea .................... 385
viii) other taxa. Anthracoceridae, Hippopotamidae,
Chelonia, Crocodile, Mollusca, Primates,
Coprolites ....................................... 386-388
Part 2. An overview of the faunal remains from the
Pabbi Hills ........................................ 388
1) Continuity and extinction in the Pabbi Hills sequence ... 388
2) The Elephas hysudricus faunal zone ...................... 389
3) Opdyke et al's (1979) Upper Siwalik biostratigraphy
reassessed .............................................. 390
4) Faunal turnover in South Asia compared with that in
East Africa ............................................. 390
Tables accompanying Chapter 10 ......................... 394-403
Appendix: Vertebrate Fossils. Carnivora (Alan Turner) ..... 404-411
Chapter 11. The taphonomy of the fossil record of
the Pabbi Hills ............................... 412-442
1) What was found where. the distribution of fossils
across the landscape .................................... 412
2) The sedimentary context of fossils ...................... 413
3) The main types of fossil occurrences ................ 414-418
4) Type of animals ......................................... 418
5) Information loss: weathering, fragmentation and
disarticulation ..................................... 422-428
6) Types of skeletal elements .............................. 428
7) Carcass dispersal ....................................... 430
8) The sampling of rare taxa. needles and haystacks ........ 430
9) The absence of hominins. real or a sampling problem? .... 433
Overview ................................................... 435
Tables accompanying chapter 11 ......................... 437-442
Summary and Post-script ....................................... 443
Bibliography .............................................. 444-454
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