Preface ...................................................... xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Remote Sensing ........................ 1
1.1 Order of Battle ....................................... 2
1.1.1 Air order of battle ............................. 3
1.1.2 Electronic order of battle ...................... 3
1.1.3 Space order of battle ........................... 7
1.1.4 Naval order of battle ........................... 8
1.2 Imagery Survey ........................................ 9
1.2.1 Visible ......................................... 9
1.2.1.1 GOES, whole Earth ....................... 9
1.2.1.2 DMSP (0.5 km), Earth at night .......... 10
1.2.1.3 UoSAT(lOOm), San Francisco ............. 11
1.2.1.4 Landsat 5 (30m), San Diego ............. 13
1.2.1.5 Astronaut photography .................. 13
1.2.1.6 SPOT (10 m) ............................ 15
1.2.1.7 IRS (5 m) .............................. 17
1.2.1.8 IKONOS-San Diego/Coronado Island ....... 17
1.2.1.9 High-resolution airborne imagery ....... 19
1.2.2 Infrared (IR) .................................. 20
1.2.2.1 GOES 9 ................................. 21
1.2.2.2 Landsat-IR San Diego ................... 22
1.2.2.3 DMSP-IR and microwave .................. 23
1.2.3 Radar (SAR) .................................... 24
1.2.3.1 RADARSAT, Maui and the airport ......... 24
1.2.3.2 SIRC-Multi-wavelength/polarization ..... 26
1.2.3.2.1 Maui ......................... 26
1.2.3.2.2 SIRC, San Diego Harbor ....... 26
1.3 Three Axes ........................................... 26
1.4 Resources ............................................ 28
1.5 Problems ............................................. 29
Chapter 2 Electromagnetic Basics ............................... 33
2.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum ......................... 33
2.1.1 Maxwell's equations ............................ 33
2.2 Polarization of Radiation ............................ 35
2.3 Energy in Electromagnetic Waves ...................... 35
2.3.1 Photoelectric effect ........................... 38
2.3.2 Photomultiplier tubes .......................... 39
2.4 Sources of Electromagnetic Radiation ................. 41
2.4.1 Line spectra ................................... 42
2.4.2 Blackbody radiation ............................ 45
2.5 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)-Matter
Interactions ......................................... 48
2.5.1 Transmission ................................... 49
2.5.2 Reflection ..................................... 50
2.5.3 Scattering ..................................... 51
2.5.4 Absorption ..................................... 52
2.6 Problems ............................................. 53
Chapter 3 Visible Imagery ...................................... 55
3.1 The First Remote Sensing Satellite: Corona ........... 55
3.1.1 A little history ............................... 55
3.1.2 The technology ................................. 56
3.1.3 Some illustrations ............................. 59
3.2 Atmospheric Absorption, Scattering, and Turbulence ... 63
3.2.1 Atmospheric absorption: wavelength
dependence ..................................... 63
3.2.2 Atmospheric scattering ......................... 64
3.2.3 Atmospheric turbulence ......................... 66
3.3 Basic Geometrical Optics ............................. 67
3.3.1 Focal length/geometry .......................... 67
3.3.2 Optical diagram: similar triangles,
magnification .................................. 68
3.3.3 Aperture (f/stop) .............................. 69
3.3.4 Image formation by lens or pinhole ............. 69
3.4 Diffraction Limits: the Rayleigh Criterion ........... 70
3.5 Detectors ............................................ 73
3.5.1 Film ........................................... 74
3.5.2 Solid state .................................... 74
3.5.3 Focal plane arrays ............................. 78
3.5.4 Uncooled focal planes: Microbolometers ......... 79
3.6 Imaging System Types ................................. 80
3.6.1 Framing systems—mostly film systems (Corona) ... 80
3.6.2 Scanning systems ............................... 80
3.6.2.1 Cross track
(Landsat MSS, TM; AVIRIS) .............. 80
3.6.2.2 Along track (SPOT HRV) ................. 81
3.7 Hubble: The Big Telescope ............................ 82
3.7.1 The Hubble satellite ........................... 82
3.7.2 The repair missions ............................ 84
3.7.3 Operating constraints .......................... 86
3.7.3.1 South Atlantic anomaly ................. 86
3.7.3.2 Spacecraft position in orbit ........... 86
3.7.4 The telescope itself ........................... 86
3.7.5 Detectors-Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 .... 88
3.7.5.1 Example: Diffraction and resolution
limits ................................. 90
3.7.5.1.1 Ray leigh criteria ........... 90
3.7.5.1.2 Geometric resolution ......... 92
3.8 Commercial Remote Sensing-IKONOS and Quickbird ....... 92
3.8.1 IKONOS ......................................... 95
3.8.1.1 Imaging sensors and electronics for
the IKONOS satellite ................... 95
3.8.1.1.1 Camera telescope ............. 95
3.8.1.1.2 Imaging sensors &
electronics .................. 96
3.8.2 NOB with IKONOS: Severodvinsk .................. 97
3.9 DMSP: Visible Sensor, Earth at Night ................. 98
3.10 Exposure Times ...................................... 99
3.11 Problems ........................................... 101
Chapter 4 Orbital Mechanics Interlude ......................... 103
4.1 Gravitational Force ................................. 103
4.2 Circular Motion ..................................... 104
4.2.1 Equations of motion ........................... 104
4.2.1.1 Example: A car is going around in a
circle of 200 m radius at 36 km/hr.
What is to? ........................... 104
4.2.1.2 Example: A satellite is going around
the Earth once every 90 minutes.
What is ω? ............................ 105
4.2.2 Centripetal force ............................. 105
4.3 Satellite Motion .................................... 105
4.4 Kepler's Laws ....................................... 106
4.4.1 Elliptical orbits ............................. 106
4.4.2 Equal areas swept out in equal times .......... 107
4.4.3 Orbital period: τ2 ∞ ρ3 ....................... 108
4.5 Orbital Elements .................................... 108
4.5.1 Semi-major axis: a ............................ 108
4.5.2 Eccentricity: e or ε .......................... 108
4.5.3 Inclination angle: I .......................... 108
4.5.4 Right ascension of the ascending node: Ω ...... 109
4.5.5 Closest point of approach
(argument of perigee): ω ...................... 109
4.6 A Few Standard Orbits ............................... 109
4.6.1 Low Earth orbit (LEO) ......................... 110
4.6.2 Medium Earth orbit (MEO) ...................... 111
4.6.3 Geosynchronous orbit (GEO) .................... 111
4.6.4 Molniya orbit (HEO) ........................... 113
4.6.5 Summary table—illustrations ................... 114
4.7 Problems ............................................ 115
Chapter 5 EO—Spectral Imagery ................................. 117
5.1 Reflectance of Materials ............................ 117
5.2 Human Visual Response ............................... 118
5.3 Landsat ............................................. 120
5.3.1 Orbit ......................................... 121
5.3.2 Sensor: Thematic mapper ....................... 122
5.3.2.1 Optics ................................ 122
5.3.2.2 Focal planes .......................... 124
5.3.2.2.1 Prime focal plane ........... 124
5.3.2.2.2 Cold focal plane ............ 125
5.3.2.2.3 Spectral response ........... 125
5.3.2.3 Spatial resolution—swath .............. 126
5.3.2.4 Dynamic range ......................... 127
5.3.2.5 Data links ............................ 127
5.4 Systeme Probatoire d'Observation de la Terre
(SPOT) .............................................. 128
5.4.1 HRV sensor, pan/spectral—both 60-km swath ..... 130
5.4.1.1 Imaging modes—spatial and spectral
resolution ............................ 130
5.5 Spectral Responses for the Commercial Systems ....... 131
5.6 Imaging Spectroscopy ................................ 132
5.6.1 AVIRIS ........................................ 132
5.6.2 Hyperion ...................................... 133
5.6.3 MightySat II—FTHSI ............................ 135
5.7 Problems ............................................ 136
Chapter 6 Image Analysis ...................................... 137
6.1 Interpretation Keys (elements of recognition) ....... 137
6.1.1 Shape ......................................... 137
6.1.2 Size .......................................... 138
6.1.3 Shadow ........................................ 138
6.1.4 Height (depth) ................................ 138
6.1.5 Tone or color ................................. 138
6.1.6 Texture ....................................... 139
6.1.7 Pattern ....................................... 139
6.1.8 Association ................................... 140
6.1.9 Site .......................................... 140
6.1.10 Time ......................................... 140
6.2 Image Processing .................................... 140
6.2.1 Digital numbers: pixels and pictures,
histograms .................................... 142
6.2.2 Dynamic range-snow and black cats ............. 143
6.2.3 Filters ....................................... 146
6.2.3.1 Smoothing ............................. 146
6.2.3.2 Edge detection ........................ 146
6.3 Histograms and Target Detection ..................... 147
6.4 Histograms, Spectral Data, and Transforms ........... 149
6.5 Supplemental Notes on Statistics .................... 153
6.6 Problems ............................................ 156
Chapter 7 Thermal Infrared .................................... 157
7.1 IR Basics ........................................... 157
7.1.1 Blackbody radiation ........................... 157
7.1.2 Wien's displacement law ....................... 158
7.1.3 Stefan-Boltzmann law T4 ....................... 158
7.1.4 Emissivity .................................... 159
7.1.5 Atmospheric absoiption ........................ 159
7.2 IR Concepts ......................................... 159
7.2.1 Kinetic temperature ........................... 159
7.2.2 Thermal inertia, conductivity, capacity,
diffusivity ................................... 160
7.2.2.1 Heat capacity (specific heat) ......... 160
7.2.2.2 Thermal conductivity .................. 161
7.2.2.3 Thermal inertia ....................... 161
7.2.2.4 Thermal diffusivity ................... 161
7.2.2.5 Diurnal temperature variation ......... 162
7.3 Landsat ............................................. 163
7.4 Early Weather Satellites ............................ 165
7.4.1 TIROS ......................................... 166
7.4.2 NIMBUS ........................................ 166
7.5 GOES ................................................ 167
7.5.1 Satellite and sensor .......................... 167
7.5.2 Weather and storms—Hurricane Mitch ............ 169
7.5.3 Volcanoes and ash clouds ...................... 170
7.5.4 Shuttle launch: vapor trail, rocket ........... 171
7.6 Defense Support Program—DSP ......................... 172
7.7 SEBASS—thermal spectral ............................. 175
7.7.1 Hard targets .................................. 175
7.7.2 Gas measurements: Kilauea—Pu 'u 'O 'o Vent .... 176
7.8 Problems ............................................ 178
Chapter 8 Radar ............................................... 179
8.1 Imaging Radar ....................................... 179
8.2 Theory .............................................. 179
8.2.1 Imaging radar basics .......................... 179
8.2.2 Radar range resolution ........................ 182
8.2.2.1 Signal shape .......................... 183
8.2.3 Radar azimuthal resolution .................... 185
8.2.4 Beam pattern and resolution ................... 186
8.3 Synthetic-Aperture Radar ............................ 188
8.4 Radar Cross Section (σ) ............................. 191
8.4.1 Dielectric coefficient: soil moisture ......... 192
8.4.2 Roughness ..................................... 194
8.4.3 Tetrahedrons/corner reflectors ................ 194
8.5 Polarization ........................................ 195
8.6 Wavelength .......................................... 196
8.7 Vehicles ............................................ 197
8.7.1 Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR) ................... 197
8.7.1.1 Soil penetration ...................... 199
8.7.1.2 Oil slicks and internal waves ......... 200
8.7.2 RADARSAT: ship detection ...................... 201
8.7.3 European radar satellites: ERS-1, ERS-2 ....... 202
8.7.3.1 Ship wakes ............................ 203
8.7.3.2 Multi-temporal images: Rome ........... 204
8.7.3.3 SPAIN—MOROCCO—Strait of Gibraltar ..... 204
8.7.4 Sandia Ku-band airborne radar ................. 206
8.8 Problems ............................................ 208
Chapter 9 Radar and LIDAR ..................................... 211
9.1 Radar Interferometry ................................ 211
9.1.1 Topographic mapping ........................... 211
9.1.2 The Shuttle Radar Topographic Mapping (SRTM)
Mission ....................................... 214
9.1.2.1 Mission design ........................ 215
9.1.2.2 Mission results: level-2
terrain-height datasets
(digital topographic maps) ............ 217
9.2 LIDAR ............................................... 219
9.2.1 Introduction .................................. 219
9.2.2 OPTECH: Airborne Laser Terrain Mapper
(ALTM) ........................................ 220
9.2.3 Bathymetry .................................... 222
9.3 Exercise ............................................ 224
Appendix 1 Derivations ........................................ 225
A1.1 Derivation of the Bohr Atom ........................ 225
Assumption 1: The atom is held together by
the Coulomb Force ................................ 225
Assumption 2: The electron moves in an elliptical
orbit around the nucleus
(as in planetary motion) ......................... 226
Assumption 3: Quantized angular momentum ........... 226
Assumption 4: Radiation is emitted only from
transitions between the discrete energy levels ... 228
A1.2 Dielectric Theory .................................. 229
A1.3 Derivation of the Beam Pattern for a Square
Aperture ........................................... 230
Appendix 2 CORONA ............................................. 233
A2.1 Mission Overview ................................... 233
A2.2 Camera Data ........................................ 234
A2.3 Mission Summary .................................... 235
A2.4 Orbits—An Example .................................. 242
Appendix 3 Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System ........... 243
A3.1 Relay Satellites—TDRSS ............................. 243
A3.2 White Sands ........................................ 244
A3.3 TDRS 1 to 7 ........................................ 245
A3.3.1 Satellites .................................. 245
A3.3.2 Payload ..................................... 246
A3.4 TDRS H ............................................. 247
A3.4.1 TDRS H, I, and J Payload Characteristics .... 247
A3.4.1.1 S-Band Multiple Access ............. 248
A3.4.1.2 Single-Access (SA) Antenna (2) ..... 248
A3.4.1.3 Space-Ground-Link Antenna
(Ku Band) .......................... 248
Appendix 4 Useful Equations and Constants ..................... 249
EM Waves ........................................... 249
Bohr Atom .......................................... 249
Blackbody Radiation ................................ 249
Reflection and Refraction .......................... 250
Optics ............................................. 250
Orbital Mechanics and Circular Motion .............. 250
Index ......................................................... 251
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