Preface ........................................................ xv
Author ....................................................... xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Distribution Automation Systems ....... 1
1.1. Historical Background ...................................... 1
1.2. Distribution System Topology and Structure ................. 2
1.3. Distribution Automation (DA) and Control ................... 5
1.4. Summary .................................................... 6
Chapter 2 Computational Techniques for Distribution Systems ..... 9
2.1. Introduction ............................................... 9
2.2. Complex Power Concepts ..................................... 9
2.2.1. Power Equations .................................... 11
2.2.1.1. Resistive Element ......................... 11
2.2.1.2. Inductive Element ......................... 12
2.2.1.3. Capacitive Element ........................ 12
2.2.2. Single-Phase Power Formulations .................... 13
2.2.3. Balanced Three-Phase Power Formulations ............ 14
2.3. Balanced Voltage to Neutral-Connected System .............. 15
2.3.1. Wye- or Y-Connected System ......................... 15
2.3.2. Delta- or Δ-Connected System ....................... 16
2.4. Power Relationship for 3Φ Σ-Δ-Connected System ............ 18
2.5. Pef-Unit System ........................................... 19
2.5.1. Conversion of a Per Unit from a New Base of
Reference .......................................... 20
2.5.2. Per-Unit Formulations for 3Φ System ................ 21
2.6. Calculation of Power Losses ............................... 22
2.7. Voltage Regulation Techniques ............................. 24
2.7.1. Capacitor Banks for Voltage Regulation and Power
Factor Correction .................................. 24
2.7.1.1. Shunt Capacitor Installed in Parallel
to Distribution Network Model ............. 24
2.7.1.2. Calculation of Voltage Drop for a
Distribution Feeder ....................... 26
2.7.2. Tap-Changing Method for Voltage Regulation ......... 26
2.7.3. Voltage-Regulating Transformers .................... 27
2.7.4. Phase Shifter or Regulating Transformer ............ 28
2.8. Voltage-Sag Analysis and Calculation ...................... 30
2.9. Equipment Modeling ........................................ 31
2.9.1. Power Transformers ................................. 31
2.9.2. Distribution Transformers .......................... 31
2.9.2.1. Principles and Operating Fundamentals ..... 33
2.9.3. Autotransformer Model .............................. 34
2.9.4. Cogenerator Model .................................. 35
2.9.5. Synchronous Generator Model ........................ 36
2.9.6. Inverter-Connected Generator in Photovoltaic
Systems ............................................ 36
2.9.7. Synchronous Generator Model ........................ 37
2.10.Components Modeling ....................................... 37
2.10.1.Line Model in Distribution Systems ................. 37
2.10.2.Shunt Capacitor Model .............................. 38
2.10.3.Switch Model ....................................... 38
2.10.4.Load Models ........................................ 38
2.10.4.1.Constant Power Loads (к1 = k2 = 0) ........ 38
2.10.4.2.Constant Current Loads (к1 = k2 = 1) ...... 39
2.10.4.3.Constant Impedance Loads (к1 = к2 = 2) .... 39
2.10.4.4.Composite/Nonlinear Loads ................. 39
2.10.5.SVC Device Model ................................... 39
2.11.Distribution System Line Model ............................ 40
2.12.Distribution Power Flow Analysis .......................... 41
2.13.Distribution System Topology for Development of Load
Flow ...................................................... 43
2.14.Review of Classical Power Flow Methods .................... 43
2.14.1.Gauss-Seidal Method ................................ 44
2.14.2.Newton-Raphson Method .............................. 44
2.14.3.Fast-Decouple Power Flow ........................... 45
2.15.Distribution Power Flow Methods ........................... 47
2.15.1.Description of Distribution Power Flow
Methodologies ...................................... 47
2.15.1.1.Method 1: Forward/Backward Methods ........ 47
2.15.1.2.Method 2: Power-Flow Method Based on
Sensitivity Matrix for Mismatch
Calculation ............................... 48
2.15.1.3.Method 3: Bus-Impedance Network Method .... 51
2.16.Illustrative Examples ..................................... 53
2.16.1.Distribution Transformer Considered for Use as
a Step-Down Autotransformer ........................ 53
2.16.2.Transformer Short Circuit during an Open-Circuit
Test ............................................... 54
2.16.3.Unbalanced Set of Voltages ......................... 56
2.16.4.Newton-Raphson Method .............................. 57
2.16.5.Polar Formulation of Load-Flow Equations ........... 59
2.16.6.Gauss-Seidel Method ................................ 61
2.17.Summary ................................................... 63
Chapter 3 Distribution System Protection and Control ........... 67
3.1. Introduction .............................................. 67
3.1.1. Introduction to Symmetrical Components ............. 68
3.1.2. Sequence Networks Used in Fault Analysis ........... 69
3.1.2.1. Computation of Phase and Total Power
Using Sequence Networks ................... 70
3.1.2.2. Development of Sequence Networks for
Power Systems ............................. 72
3.2. Single Line-to-Ground Fault ............................... 74
3.3. Double Line-to-Ground Fault on Phase В and С .............. 76
3.4. Three-Phase Fault Analysis ................................ 78
3.5. Line-to-Ground and Line-to-Line Faults .................... 80
3.5.1. Single Line-to-Ground Fault ........................ 80
3.5.2. Line-to-Line Fault ................................. 81
3.6. Protection Systems ........................................ 83
3.6.1. Relay .............................................. 84
3.6.2. Instrument Transformers ............................ 84
3.6.2.1. Accounting for Saturation in CT ........... 86
3.6.3. Reclosers .......................................... 86
3.6.4. Fuses .............................................. 87
3.6.5. Sectionalizer ...................................... 89
3.7. Protective Relay Technology ............................... 89
3.7.1. Digital Relaying ................................... 90
3.7.2. Electromechanical Relay Technology ................. 91
3.7.3. Induction Disc Relays .............................. 91
3.7.3.1. Example 1, Coordinating Time-Delay
Overcurrent Relays in a Radial System ..... 92
3.7.3.2. Example 2, Radial System Protection ....... 94
3.8. System Protection in General .............................. 97
3.9. System Protection for Different Power System
Zone Components ........................................... 98
3.9.1. Line Protection with Impedance Distance Relays ..... 98
3.9.1.1. Directional Overcurrent Relays ............ 98
3.9.1.2. Impedance Relay ........................... 98
3.9.2. Mho Relays ......................................... 99
3.9.3. Ohm Relays ........................................ 101
3.9.4. Generator, Buses, and Transformer ................. 103
3.9.4.1. Generator Protection ..................... 103
3.9.4.2. Bus Protection with Differential
Relays ................................... 104
3.9.4.3. Transformer Protection with
Differential Relays ...................... 105
3.10.Illustrative Examples .................................... 105
3.10.1.Example 1 ......................................... 105
3.10.2.Example 2 ......................................... 106
3.10.3.Example 3 ......................................... 107
3.10.4.Example 4, Three-Phase Fault ...................... 108
3.10.5.Example 5, Single-Line-to-Ground (SLG) Fault ...... 110
3.11.Summary .................................................. 112
Chapter 4 Distribution System Reliability and Maintenance ..... 115
4.1. Introduction ............................................. 115
4.2. Reliability Evaluation ................................... 116
4.2.1. Inputs Required for Historical Assessment ......... 116
4.3. Terminology/Definitions .................................. 117
4.4. Reliability Indices ...................................... 118
4.5. Methods of Reliability Analysis .......................... 122
4.5.1. Analytical Methods ................................ 123
4.5.2. State Space Diagrams .............................. 123
4.5.2.1. Case A, Series Components ................ 124
4.5.2.2. Case B, Parallel Systems ................. 124
4.5.2.3. Case C, Series and Parallel System ....... 124
4.6. Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) Method ......... 125
4.7. Event-Tree Analysis Method ............................... 125
4.8. Fault-Tree Analysis Method ............................... 126
4.9. Unavailability of Power Calculations from the Cut Set .... 127
4.9.1. Fault Tree Based on Minimal Cut Set ............... 127
4.9.1.1. Determine Power Interruption and
Unavailability ........................... 127
4.9.1.2. Methodological Approach to Identifying
Minimum Cut Set .......................... 129
4.9.2. Nonminimal Cut Set in Complete Unavailability ..... 130
4.9.3. Summary of Findings Using Minimal Cut Sets to
Identify Causes of Failures ....................... 131
4.10.Simulation Techniques for Reliability Analysis ........... 132
4.11.Simulation Methods Utilized for Distribution
Reliability Analysis ................................ 133
4.11.1.Monte Carlo Simulation Method ..................... 133
4.11.1.1.Sequential Monte Carlo Method ............ 133
4.11.1.2.Nonsequential Monte Carlo Simulation ..... 134
4.11.1.3.General Statement: Monte Carlo
Simulation ............................... 134
4.12.Evaluation of Distribution Reliability Analysis Method ... 135
4.13.Reliability Database Design .............................. 135
4.13.1.DISREL ............................................ 135
4.13.1.1.General Information on DISREL ............ 136
4.13.1.2.Main Features ............................ 136
4.13.1.3.Program Capabilities ..................... 136
4.13.1.4.Applications of DISREL ................... 137
4.14.Maintenance and Reliability .............................. 138
4.14.1.Repair-to-Failure Process ......................... 138
4.14.2.Repair Failure: Repair Process .................... 142
4.14.3.Failure-to-Repair Process ......................... 145
4.14.4.Combined Reliability .............................. 146
4.15.Maintenance of Distribution Systems ...................... 148
4.15.1.Preventive Maintenance ............................ 148
4.15.2.Corrective Maintenance ............................ 149
4.16.Reliability-Centered Maintenance ......................... 152
4.17.Security and Reliability-Centered Maintenance ............ 153
4.18.Implementation Plan for Various Component-Maintenance
Techniques ............................................... 154
4.18.1.Overhead Lines .................................... 154
4.18.2.Circuit Breakers .................................. 154
4.18.3.Transformers ...................................... 155
4.18.4.Substation Equipment .............................. 155
4.19.Illustrative Examples .................................... 156
4.19.1.Example 1 ......................................... 156
4.19.2.Example 2 ......................................... 158
4.19.3.Example 3 ......................................... 159
4.19.4.Example 4 ......................................... 160
4.20.Summary .................................................. 161
Chapter 5 Distribution Automation and Control Functions ....... 165
5.1. Introduction ............................................. 165
5.2. Demand-Side Management ................................... 166
5.2.1. Modeling Challenges and Methodology for Demand-
Side Management ................................... 167
5.2.2. Conceptual Overview of Methodology for DSM
Studies ........................................... 168
5.3. Voltage/VAr Control ...................................... 168
5.3.1. Methods of Voltage/VAr in Distribution
Automation ........................................ 169
5.3.2. Evaluation of Methods Used for Voltage/VAr
Control ........................................... 169
5.3.3. Modeling of Voltage/VAr Control Options ........... 170
5.3.4. Formulation of Voltage/VAr ........................ 170
5.3.5. System Operating Constraints ...................... 171
5.3.6. Methodology ....................................... 172
5.4. Fault Detection (Distribution Automation Function) ....... 172
5.4.1. Classical Approaches Used for Solving
Detection Techniques .............................. 173
5.4.1.1. Harmonic Sequence Component Technique .... 173
5.4.1.2. Amplitude Ratio Technique ................ 173
5.4.1.3. Phase Relationship Technique ............. 173
5.4.1.4. Energy Technique ......................... 173
5.4.1.5. Randomness Technique ..................... 173
5.4.2. Modeling of Faults/Classification ................. 173
5.5. Trouble Calls ............................................ 174
5.6. Restoration Functions .................................... 176
5.6.1. Evaluation of Methods ............................. 176
5.6.2. Optimization Formulation .......................... 177
5.6.3. Optimization Constraints .......................... 178
5.6.4. Methodology ....................................... 179
5.7. Reconfiguration of Distribution Systems .................. 179
5.7.1. Methods Used for Reconfiguration .................. 180
5.7.2. Formulation of Modeling of Reconfiguration ........ 180
5.7.2.1. Method of Load Balancing 1 ............... 181
5.7.2.2. Method of Load Balancing 2 ............... 181
5.7.2.3. Method of Minimizing Voltage Deviation ... 183
5.7.2.4. Algorithm for Single-Loop Voltage
Minimization ............................. 183
5.8. Power Quality ............................................ 185
5.8.1. Techniques for Modeling Harmonics in Power-
Quality-Assessment Methodology .................... 185
5.8.2. New Approaches of Power Quality ................... 187
5.9. Optimization Techniques .................................. 188
5.9.1. Objectives ........................................ 188
5.9.2. Constraints ....................................... 189
5.9.3. Classical Solution ................................ 190
5.9.4. Linear Programming ................................ 192
5.9.5. Mixed-Integer Programming ......................... 193
5.9.6. Interior-Point Linear Programming ................. 195
5.9.7. Sequential Quadratic Programming .................. 198
5.10.Illustrative Examples .................................... 200
5.10.1.Example 1 ......................................... 200
5.11.Summary .................................................. 201
Chapter 6 Intelligent Systems in Distribution Automation ...... 205
6.1. Introduction ............................................. 205
6.2. Distribution Automation Function ......................... 206
6.3. Artificial Intelligence Methods .......................... 207
6.3.1. Expert System Techniques .......................... 207
6.3.2. Artificial Neural Networks ........................ 209
6.3.2.1. Evolution of Connection Weights .......... 210
6.3.3. Fuzzy Logic ....................................... 210
6.3.3.1. Fuzzy Sets and Systems ................... 211
6.3.3.2. Fuzzy Sets ............................... 211
6.3.3.3. Fuzzy Systems, Complexity, and
Ambiguity ................................ 211
6.3.4. Genetic Algorithms (GA) ........................... 212
6.4. Intelligent Systems in Distribution Automation ........... 213
6.4.1. DSM and AI ........................................ 213
6.5. Voltage/VAr Control ...................................... 215
6.6. Network Reconfiguration via AI ........................... 216
6.6.1. Further Research Work in Network
Reconfiguration Using Artificial Intelligence ..... 217
6.7. Fault Detection, Classification, and Location in
Distribution Systems ..................................... 217
6.7.1. Use of AI Techniques for Fault Analysis ........... 218
6.8. Summary .................................................. 218
Chapter 7 Renewable Energy Options and Technology ............. 223
7.1. Introduction ............................................. 223
7.2. Distributed Generation ................................... 223
7.3. Working Definition and Classification of Renewable
Energy ................................................... 225
7.4. Renewable Energy Options ................................. 226
7.4.1. Solar ............................................. 226
7.4.1.1. Modeling ................................. 228
7.4.1.2. PV Systems ............................... 231
7.4.1.3. V-I Characteristics ...................... 231
7.4.2. Wind Turbine Systems .............................. 232
7.4.2.1. Modeling ................................. 233
7.4.2.2. Impact of Tower Height on Wind Power ..... 234
7.4.2.3. Emission Control Technologies ............ 234
7.4.3. Biomass-Bioenergy ................................. 235
7.4.3.1. Advantage and Disadvantages of Biomass
Power .................................... 236
7.4.4. Small and Micro Hydropower ........................ 236
7.5. Other Nonrenewable Energy Sources ........................ 237
7.5.1. Fuel Cell ......................................... 237
7.5.1.1. Operation of Fuel Cells .................. 238
7.5.1.2. Sample Calculation ....................... 239
7.5.2. Ocean Energy ...................................... 241
7.5.3. Geothermal Heat Pumps ............................. 242
7.5.4. Microturbine and Sterling Engine .................. 242
7.5.4.1. Description .............................. 242
7.5.4.2. Sterling Engine .......................... 243
7.5.5. Comparison ........................................ 244
7.6. Distributed Generation Concepts and Benefits ............. 244
7.6.1. Categories of DG .................................. 245
7.6.2. Criteria for DG Concepts .......................... 245
7.6.3. DG Benefits ....................................... 245
7.7. Illustrative Examples .................................... 248
7.7.1. Example 1 ......................................... 248
7.7.2. Example 2 ......................................... 249
7.7.3. Example 3 ......................................... 251
7.7.4. Example 4 ......................................... 252
7.7.5. Example 5 ......................................... 253
7.7.6. Example 6 ......................................... 254
7.8. Summary .................................................. 255
Chapter 8 Distribution Management Systems ..................... 259
8.1. Introduction to EMS ...................................... 259
8.1.1. DMS and EMS ....................................... 259
8.2. Functions of EMS ......................................... 260
8.3. SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) ......... 261
8.4. RTU (Remote Terminal Units) .............................. 263
8.5. Distribution Management System (DMS) ..................... 263
8.5.1. System Hardware for DMS Station ................... 264
8.5.2. SCADA System Functions for DMS .................... 264
8.5.3. DMS Functions ..................................... 265
8.5.4. Substation and Feeder SCADA ....................... 265
8.5.5. Feeder Automation ................................. 267
8.5.5.1. Fault Location, Isolation, and
Restoration (FLIR) ....................... 267
8.5.5.2. Voltage/VAr Control ...................... 268
8.5.5.3. Voltage Control .......................... 268
8.5.5.4. Substation Automation (SA) ............... 268
8.5.5.5. Trouble-Call and Outage Management
(TCOM) ................................... 268
8.5.5.6. Reconfiguration Function ................. 268
8.5.6. Distribution System Analysis (DSA) ................ 269
8.5.7. Load Management System (LMS) ...................... 269
8.5.8. Geographic Information System (GIS) ............... 269
8.5.9. Customer Information System (CIS) ................. 270
8.6. Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) ............................ 270
8.6.1. Advanced Billing .................................. 271
8.6.2. Special Features and Benefits of AMR .............. 271
8.6.3. Advancement in AMR Technology ..................... 272
8.6.4. Advances in Billing Technology .................... 272
8.7. Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) in Distribution Systems ...... 272
8.7.1. Cost-Benefit Analysis Methodology ................. 273
8.7.2. Function/Payback Correlation ...................... 273
8.8. Summary .................................................. 274
Chapter 9 Communication Systems for Distribution
Automation Systems .................................. 277
9.1. Introduction ............................................. 277
9.1.1. What is Telecommunication? ........................ 277
9.2. Telecommunication in Principle ........................... 278
9.3. Data Communication in Power System Distribution
Network .................................................. 278
9.4. Signal Representation .................................... 279
9.4.1. Communication Technology for Signal Description ... 280
9.5. Types of Telecommunication Media ......................... 281
9.5.1. Copper Circuit .................................... 281
9.5.2. Twisted Pair ...................................... 282
9.5.3. Coaxial Cable ..................................... 282
9.5.4. Fiber Optics ...................................... 282
9.5.5. Microwave/Radio ................................... 283
9.5.6. Cellular Transmission ............................. 283
9.6. Communication Modulation Techniques ...................... 284
9.6.1. Amplitude Modulation (AM) ......................... 284
9.6.2. Frequency Modulation (FM) ......................... 285
9.6.2.1. Pulse Modulation (PM) .................... 285
9.6.2.2. Frequency Modulation ..................... 286
9.6.2.3. Amplitude Modulation ..................... 286
9.6.3. Modulation Indices ................................ 287
9.6.4. Digital Modulation ................................ 287
9.6.4.1. Asynchronous/Synchronous
Communications ........................... 288
9.6.4.2. Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) .... 289
9.7. Communication Networking ................................. 290
9.7.1. Local Area Network ................................ 290
9.7.1.1. Method of Transmission in LAN ............ 291
9.7.1.2. LAN Topologies ........................... 292
9.7.2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ................... 293
9.7.3. Wide Area Network (WAN) ........................... 294
9.7.3.1. Types of WAN Connection .................. 294
9.7.4. Types of Computing Connectivity ................... 295
9.8. Frame-Relay Communications ............................... 295
9.8.1. Frame-Relay Standardization ....................... 296
9.8.2. Switched Virtual Circuits ......................... 297
9.8.3. Permanent Virtual Circuits ........................ 297
9.8.4. Frame-Relay Handling of Congestion Error .......... 297
9.8.5. Frame-Relay Network Implementation ................ 298
9.8.5.1. Public-Carrier-Provided Networks ......... 298
9.8.5.2. Private Enterprise Networks .............. 298
9.8.6. Frame-Relay Frame Formats ......................... 299
9.9. Communication Standards Overview ......................... 301
9.9.1. Standards Bodies .................................. 302
9.9.2. Suite of Standards ................................ 302
9.9.3. Interconnection Standards and Regulations ......... 304
9.10.OSI Model ................................................ 304
9.10.1.Description of OSI Model .......................... 305
9.10.1.1.Transport Layers or Lower Layers ......... 305
9.10.1.2.Application Layers or Upper Layers ....... 306
9.10.2.Message Handling .................................. 307
9.11.Distribution Network Protocol (DNP3) ..................... 308
9.11.1.DNP3 Protocol Three-Layer Structure Description ... 309
9.12.Utility Communication Architecture (UCA) ................. 309
9.12.1.Overview and Application .......................... 309
9.13.Power-Line Carrier Communication ......................... 311
9.13.1.Introduction ...................................... 311
9.13.2.PLC Architecture .................................. 311
9.13.2.1.Line Traps ............................... 312
9.13.2.2.Line-Tuning Units ........................ 313
9.13.2.3.Hybrids .................................. 313
9.13.3.Broadband over Power Lines (BPL) .................. 314
9.13.4.Standards ......................................... 314
9.13.5.Current Trends and Applications ................... 314
9.14.Security in Telecommunications and Information
Technology ............................................... 316
9.14.1.Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Risks ............... 316
9.14.2.Security Architecture Elements in ITU-T X.805 ..... 317
9.14.3.Privacy and Data Confidentiality .................. 318
9.14.4.Authentication .................................... 318
9.14.5.Data Integrity .................................... 319
9.14.6.Non-repudiation ................................... 319
9.14.7.Other Dimensions Defined in X.805 ................. 319
9.14.8.Security Framework Requirements ................... 319
9.14.9.Information Security Goals ........................ 320
9.15.Illustrative Examples .................................... 321
9.15.1.Example 1 ......................................... 321
9.16.Summary .................................................. 322
Chapter 10 Epilogue ........................................... 325
10.1.Challenges to Distribution Systems for a Competitive
Power Utility Environment ................................ 325
10.2.Protection ............................................... 326
10.3.Demand Response .......................................... 326
10.4.Communication Advances ................................... 326
10.5.Microgrid ................................................ 327
10.6.Standards and Institutional Barriers ..................... 327
10.7.Pricing and Billing ...................................... 327
Glossary ...................................................... 329
References .................................................... 339
Index ......................................................... 355
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