Chapter 1. Introduction ......................................... 1
1.1. Thermal and Flow Measurements .............................. 1
1.2. Some Examples of Thermal and Flow Measurements ............. 3
1.3. Characteristics of Measurement Systems ..................... 8
1.4. Time Response of Measurement Systems ...................... 12
1.5. Time-Series Analysis and Signal Processing ................ 19
1.6. Error Estimates and Uncertainty Analysis .................. 25
1.6.1. Error Estimates Using Gaussian Distribution ........ 28
1.6.2. Data Regression .................................... 32
1.6.3. Uncertainty Analysis ............................... 34
1.7. Dimensional Analysis and Similitude ....................... 38
1.8. Basic Science and Engineering in Thermal and Flow
Measurements .............................................. 43
References ................................................ 44
Problems .................................................. 44
Chapter 2. Basic Measurements of Pressure, Temperature,
and Flow Rates ...................................... 49
2.1. Pressure Measurements ..................................... 49
2.1.1. Manometers ......................................... 51
2.1.2. Pressure Transducers Based on Elastic Strain ....... 53
2.1.3. Piezoelectric Transducers .......................... 56
2.1.4. Some Implementation Issues ......................... 57
2.2. Temperature Sensors ....................................... 59
2.2.1. Temperature Measurements Based on Thermal
Expansion of Materials ............................. 60
2.2.2. Thermocouples ...................................... 61
2.2.3. Resistance-Based Temperature Sensors ............... 66
2.2.4. Pyrometer Measurements of Temperature .............. 71
2.3. Strain Gauges ............................................. 75
2.4. Flow Rate Measurements .................................... 78
2.4.1. Obstruction Flowmeters ............................. 79
2.4.2. Rotameters ......................................... 82
2.4.3. Turbine Flowmeters ................................. 83
2.4.4. Thermal Mass Flowmeters ............................ 83
2.4.5. Flow Velocity Measurements Using Pitot and
Static Pressure Probes ............................. 85
References ..................................................... 85
Problems ....................................................... 86
Chapter 3. Flow Visualization and Image Analysis ............... 89
3.1. Introduction .............................................. 89
3.2. Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines ................... 90
3.3. Direct Photography Using Flow Tracers ..................... 95
3.4. Surface Imaging Using Thermochromatic Liquid Crystals
and Pressure-Sensitive Coatings ........................... 97
3.5. Shadowgraph and Schlieren Imaging ......................... 98
3.6. Interferometry ........................................... 106
Holographic Imaging ...................................... 108
3.7. Laser Tomographic Imaging ................................ 113
3.8. Image Processing and Analysis ............................ 117
3.8.1. Image Acquisition ................................. 117
3.8.2. Basic Image Operations ............................ 118
3.8.3. Image Enhancements ................................ 120
3.8.4. Edge Detection .................................... 122
References .................................................... 124
Problems ...................................................... 125
Chapter 4 Flow Velocity Measurements .......................... 129
4.1. Introduction ............................................. 129
4.2. Laser Doppler Velocimetry ................................ 130
4.2.1. The Operating Principle ........................... 130
4.2.2. Operational Setup ................................. 138
4.2.3. Particle Seeding .................................. 146
4.3. Hot Wire Anemometry ...................................... 149
4.3.1. Operating Principle ............................... 150
4.3.2. Operational Considerations ........................ 153
4.4. Particle Image Velocimetry ............................... 158
4.4.1. Particle Image Density ............................ 161
4.4.2. Stereoscopic PIV for Three-Component Velocity
Measurements ...................................... 162
4.5. Other Image-Based Methods ................................ 165
References .................................................... 168
Problems ...................................................... 168
Chapter 5. Optical Diagnostics for Measurements of Species
Concentrations and Temperature ..................... 173
5.1. Introduction ............................................. 173
5.2. Rayleigh Scattering ...................................... 174
5.2.1. Rayleigh Scattering Theory ........................ 174
5.2.2. Applications of Rayleigh Scattering ............... 180
5.3. Mie Scattering ........................................... 184
5.3.1. Applications and Assessments ...................... 187
5.4. Raman Scattering ......................................... 190
5.5. Molecular Energy and Spectroscopy ........................ 196
5.6. Laser-Induced Fluorescence ............................... 201
5.7. Thermometry Based on LIF ................................. 207
5.8. Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy .................. 209
5.9. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy .................. 211
References .................................................... 218
Problems ...................................................... 219
Chapter 6 Particle Sizing and Two-Phase Flow Measurements ..... 223
6.1. Introduction ............................................. 223
6.2. Parameters to Characterize Groups of Particles ........... 224
6.3. Light Scattering and Extinction Measurements of
Particle Size ............................................ 227
6.4. Laser-Induced Incandescence Measurements of Particle
Volume Fraction and Size ................................. 230
6.5. Laser Diffraction ........................................ 233
6.6. Phase Doppler Analysis ................................... 233
6.7. Particle Mass Flux Measurements .......................... 240
6.7.1. Fiberoptic Correlation Method ..................... 240
6.7.2. Acoustic Measurements ............................. 241
6.7.3. Capacitance Probes ................................ 243
6.8. Isokinetic Sampling ...................................... 244
References .................................................... 247
Problems ...................................................... 248
Chapter 7. Gas Sampling Measurements .......................... 251
7.1. Introduction ............................................. 251
7.2. Sampling Probes .......................................... 251
7.3. Nondispersive Infrared (NDIR) Analyzers .................. 255
7.4. Measurements of Nitric Oxides ............................ 258
7.5. Hydrocarbon Analysis ..................................... 260
7.6. Measurements of Sulfur Oxides ............................ 261
7.7. Gas Chromatography ....................................... 263
7.8. Mass Spectroscopy ........................................ 274
References .................................................... 277
Problems ...................................................... 278
Chapter 8 Scaled Measurements ................................. 279
8.1. Introduction ............................................. 279
8.2. MEMS Devices ............................................. 279
8.2.1. Microfabrication Methods .......................... 280
8.2.2. Microfluidic Sensors and Devices .................. 284
8.2.3. Pressure and Temperature Sensors .................. 287
8.2.4. Bio- and Chemical Sensors ......................... 289
8.3. Nanotechnology Sensors ................................... 293
8.4. Microscopic Imaging Techniques ........................... 296
8.5. LIDARS ................................................... 301
References .................................................... 313
Problems ...................................................... 314
Appendix A. Electronic Devices ................................ 317
A.l. Operational Amplifiers ................................... 317
A.1.1. Inverting Amplifier ............................... 319
A.l.2. Noninverting Amplifier ............................ 320
A.1.3. Current-to-Voltage Converter ...................... 320
A.1.4. Differential Amplifier ............................ 321
A.2. Trigger Electronics ...................................... 322
A.3. Frequency Filters ........................................ 326
A.3.1. Filter Basics ..................................... 326
A.3.2. Active Filters .................................... 329
References .................................................... 331
Appendix В. Optics ............................................ 333
B.1. Optical Instruments ...................................... 341
B.2. Diffraction .............................................. 344
B.3. Diffraction Grating ...................................... 347
B.4. Interference ............................................. 348
References .................................................... 349
Appendix С. Electromagnetics and Electromagnetic Radiation .... 351
C.l. Maxwell's Equations ...................................... 351
C.2. Electromagnetic Wave Equation ............................ 353
C.3. Radiative Transfer Equation .............................. 358
C.3.1. Blackbody Radiation ............................... 360
References .................................................... 366
Appendix D. Quantum Mechanics and Atomic/Molecular
Structure ......................................... 367
D.1. Vibrational and Rotational Energy of Simple Molecules .... 375
D.2. Energy Transitions and Spectroscopy ...................... 377
References .................................................... 379
Index ......................................................... 381
|
