1. Instruments for a Revolution ................................. 1
1.1. Solar Mysteries ......................................... 1
1.2. Yohkoh Detects Unrest on an Awesome Scale ............... 7
1.3. Ulysses Moves into Unexplored Territory ................ 11
1.4. Wind Investigates the Sun's Varying Input to Earth ..... 16
1.5. The Sun Does Not Set for SOHO .......................... 20
1.6. ACE Measures the Composition of High-Energy
Particles Bombarding Earth ............................. 28
1.7. TRACE Focuses on Fine Details of the High-
Temperature Gas ........................................ 30
1.8. High-Energy Solar Outbursts Observed with RHESSI ....... 34
1.9. Hinode Observes How Varying Magnetic Fields Heat
the Corona and Power Explosive Outbursts There ......... 37
1.10.STEREO Observes Coronal Mass Ejections in Three
Dimensions from the Sun to Earth ....................... 44
1.11. Summary Highlights: Modern Solar Space Missions ....... 46
2. Discovering Space ........................................... 51
2.1. Space Is Not Empty ..................................... 51
2.1.1. Auroras and Geomagnetic Storms from the Sun ..... 51
2.1.2. The Main Ingredients of the Sun ................. 53
2.1.3. The Hot Solar Atmosphere ........................ 55
2.1.4. Discovery of the Solar Wind ..................... 61
2.2. Touching the Unseen .................................... 64
2.2.1. The First Direct Measurements of the Solar
Wind ............................................ 64
2.2.2. Properties of the Solar Wind at Earth's Orbit ... 66
2.3. Cosmic Rays ............................................ 68
2.4. Pervasive Solar Magnetism .............................. 72
2.4.1. Magnetic Fields in the Photosphere .............. 72
2.4.2. The 11-Year Magnetic Activity Cycle ............. 75
2.4.3. Magnetic Fields in the Corona ................... 77
2.4.4. Interplanetary Magnetic Fields .................. 80
2.5. X-rays from the Sun .................................... 83
2.6. Solar Outbursts Send Energetic Radiation and
Particles into Space ................................... 89
2.6.1. Solar Hares ..................................... 89
2.6.2. Erupting Prominences ............................ 91
2.6.3. Coronal Mass Ejections .......................... 93
2.7. Summary Highlights: Discovery of Space ................. 94
2.8. Key Events in the Discovery of Space ................... 97
3. Exploring Unseen Depths of the Sun ......................... 105
3.1. What Makes the Sun Shine? ............................. 105
3.1.1. The Sun's Size, Mass, and Temperature .......... 105
3.1.2. Nuclear Reactions in the Sun's Central
Regions ........................................ 106
3.1.3. Solving the Solar Neutrino Problem ............. 110
3.2. How the Energy Gets Out ............................... 116
3.3. Taking the Sun's Pulse ................................ 122
3.4. Looking Within the Sun ................................ 128
3.5. How the Sun Rotates Inside ............................ 131
3.6. Waves in the Sun's Core ............................... 135
3.7. Internal Flows ........................................ 137
3.7.1. Early Work and New Methods ..................... 137
3.7.2. Poleward Flows ................................. 139
3.7.3. Zonal Flow Bands ............................... 139
3.7.4. Internal Changes Over the 11-year Cycle
of Magnetic Activity ........................... 141
3.8. Three-Dimensional Views of Sunspots and Active
Regions ............................................... 142
3.8.1. Looking Beneath Sunspots ....................... 142
3.8.2. Swirling Flows Beneath Active Regions .......... 143
3.8.3. Detecting Active Regions on the Far Side of
the Sun ........................................ 144
3.9. The Solar Dynamo ...................................... 146
3.10.Summary Highlights: Exploring the Inside of the Sun ... 150
3.11.Key Events in the Understanding of the Internal
Constitution of the Sun ............................... 152
4. Solving the Sun's Heating Crisis ........................... 161
4.1. Mysterious Heat ....................................... 161
4.2. Wave Heating .......................................... 164
4.3. Heating Coronal Loops in Active Regions ............... 170
4.4. Heating the "Quiet" Corona ............................ 177
4.4.1. Heat from Jets, Bright Points, Blinkers,
Explosive Events, and Interacting, Non-
Flaring Loops .................................. 177
4.4.2. Nanoflares ..................................... 182
4.4.3. The Magnetic Carpet ............................ 183
4.5. How Hot Is a Coronal Hole? ............................ 186
4.6. Summary Highlights: The Sun's Heating Crisis .......... 188
4.7. Key Events in Coronal Heating ......................... 190
5. Winds Across the Void ...................................... 197
5.1. The Fullness of Space ................................. 197
5.2. The Two Solar Winds ................................... 201
5.3. Where Do the Sun's Winds Come From? ................... 205
5.3.1. Source Regions of the Solar Winds Near Solar
Activity Minimum ............................... 205
5.3.2. Source Regions of the Solar Winds Near Solar
Activity Maximum ............................... 211
5.3.3. Fast Wind Sources in Coronal Holes ............. 214
5.4. Getting Up to Speed ................................... 217
5.5. Riding the Waves ...................................... 224
5.6. Magnetic Connections .................................. 226
5.6.1. Flowing Wide Open .............................. 226
5.6.2. Unexpected Behavior ............................ 228
5.7. Ingredients of the Sun's Winds ........................ 231
5.7.1. Different Sources, Varying Ionization .......... 232
5.7.2. Shocking Times ................................. 233
5.7.3. Pick-Ups Near and Far .......................... 234
5.7.4. Super-Hot and Undemocratic ..................... 236
5.8. Edge of the Solar System .............................. 236
5.9. Summary Highlights: The Sun's Expanding Corona ........ 240
5.10.Key Events in Studies of the Solar Wind ............... 243
6. Our Violent Sun ............................................ 253
6.1. Solar Outbursts of Awesome Power ...................... 253
6.2. Flare Ribbons ......................................... 259
6.3. X-Ray Flares .......................................... 261
6.3.1. Soft X-Rays and Hard X-Rays from Solar
Flares ......................................... 261
6.3.2. A Model of Flaring X-Ray Emission .............. 267
6.4. White-Light Flares .................................... 269
6.5. Gamma Rays from Solar Flares .......................... 271
6.6. Solar Radio Bursts .................................... 276
6.7. Filaments Lift Off, Prominences Erupt ................. 282
6.8. Coronal Mass Ejections ................................ 287
6.8.1. Coronagraph Observations of Coronal Mass
Ejections ...................................... 287
6.8.2. Physical Properties of Coronal Mass
Ejections ...................................... 289
6.9. After the Blast ....................................... 296
6.9.1. Solar Flares Excite Coronal Loop
Oscillations ................................... 296
6.9.2. Sunquakes ...................................... 298
6.9.3. Coronal Dimming After Coronal Mass Ejections ... 299
6.9.4. Large Flares Excite Global Waves ............... 299
6.10.Explaining Why Solar Outbursts Happen ................. 301
6.10.1.What We Do Not Know About Solar Outbursts ...... 301
6.10.2.Magnetic Reconnection During Solar Flares ...... 303
6.10.3.Extension of Magnetic Reconnection to
Coronal Mass Ejections ......................... 309
6.10.4.Flares, Avalanches, and Earthquakes ............ 313
6.10.5.All Twisted Up ................................. 314
6.11.Summary Highlights: Solar Flares, Erupting
Prominences, and Coronal Mass Ejections ............... 320
6.12.Key Events in Understanding Solar Outbursts ........... 324
7. Space Weather .............................................. 337
7.1. The Space Weather Concept ............................. 337
7.2. Forecasting Space Weather ............................. 342
7.3. Solar Energetic Particles ............................. 345
7.3.1. Energetic Particles Accelerated by Solar
Flares or Coronal Mass Ejection Shocks ......... 345
7.3.2. Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections,
Interplanetary Shocks, and Magnetic Clouds ..... 349
7.3.3. Observations of Solar Energetic Particles
with Contemporary Spacecraft ................... 352
7.3.4. Two Classes of Solar Energetic Particles ....... 353
7.4. Impacting Planet Earth ................................ 356
7.4.1. Our Protective Magnetic Cocoon ................. 356
7.4.2. Earth's Magnetic Storms ........................ 359
7.4.3. The Auroras - Cosmic Neon Signs ................ 362
7.4.4. High-Flying Humans at Risk ..................... 364
7.4.5. Failing to Communicate ......................... 365
7.4.6. Satellites in Danger ........................... 366
7.4.7. Varying Solar Radiation and Earth's Changing
Atmosphere ..................................... 367
7.5. Sun - Climate ......................................... 369
7.5.1. An Inconstant Sun .............................. 370
7.5.2. Solar Variability and Climate Change
Over the Past 1,000 Years ...................... 374
7.5.3. The Earth's Rising Fever ....................... 377
7.5.4. Climate Change Over Millions and Billions
of Years ....................................... 381
7.6. Summary Highlights: Space Weather ..................... 386
7.7. Key Events in the Discovery of Solar-Terrestrial
Interactions .......................................... 391
Appendix ...................................................... 407
I. Solar Space Missions ................................... 407
II. Helioseismology ........................................ 408
III.Space Weather .......................................... 409
IV. Solar Observatories and Groups ......................... 409
V. Virtual Observatories .................................. 409
VI. Educational ............................................ 409
VII.NASA ................................................... 410
References .................................................... 411
Author Index .................................................. 523
Subject Index ................................................. 533
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