Acknowledgements for reproduction of figures ................... xi
Forests and pest management ..................................... 1
1.1. Natural and managed forests ................................ 1
1.2. Pests and pathogens in natural and managed forests ......... 5
1.2.1. Management and exploitation of natural and
semi-natural forests ................................ 6
1.2.2. Management of plantation forests .................... 8
Species and species selection ....................... 8
Sites and site selection ........................... 10
Tree improvement and clonal forestry ............... 11
1.3. Forests and the management of pests and pathogens ......... 13
Plant health ................................................... 16
2.1. International movement of pests and pathogens ............. 16
2.2. The ecology of invasions .................................. 18
2.2.1. Arrival ............................................ 19
2.2.2. Establishment ...................................... 20
2.2.3. Spread ............................................. 20
2.3. Plant health: the organisational framework ................ 22
2.4. Plant health in practice .................................. 23
2.4.1. Quarantine pests ................................... 23
2.4.2. Quarantine material ................................ 24
2.4.3. Pest Risk Analysis ................................. 24
2.4.4. Certification and inspection ....................... 26
2.4.5. Quarantine treatments .............................. 30
2.5. Managing introduced pests ................................. 30
2.5.1. Detection and survey ............................... 30
2.5.2. Containment and eradication ........................ 32
2.6. Plant health and the emergence of new pests and
pathogens ................................................. 36
Risk, monitoring and prediction ................................ 40
3.1. Defining risk ............................................. 40
3.2. Pest ecology and risk assessment .......................... 41
3.3. Quantifying risk .......................................... 42
3.3.1. Outbreak history ................................... 43
3.3.2. Forest composition and structure ................... 45
3.3.3. Site and environmental factors ..................... 46
3.3.4. Growth, vigour and complex indices ................. 47
3.4. Monitoring and prediction ................................. 51
3.4.1. Mapping the distribution and intensity of
damage ............................................. 52
3.4.2. Sampling populations ............................... 54
3.4.3. Spread of pests and pathogens ...................... 59
3.4.4. Phenology and development .......................... 60
The role of silviculture ....................................... 63
4.1. Planting and establishment ................................ 65
4.2. Managing established forests .............................. 67
4.2.1. Thinning and pruning ............................... 68
Microclimate, resources and biotic interactions .... 69
Tree density, growth rate and vigour ............... 71
Species composition ................................ 72
4.2.2. Fertilisation ...................................... 72
4.2.3. Fire ............................................... 74
4.3. Felling and post-harvest .................................. 75
4.4. Salvage and long-term storage ............................. 77
Resistance to attack by pests and pathogens .................... 82
5.1. Defence and defence theory ................................ 82
5.2. Resistance and its expression ............................. 84
5.3. Genetics of resistance .................................... 85
5.3.1. Major gene resistance .............................. 85
5.3.2. Polygenic resistance ............................... 86
5.4. Resistance mechanisms ..................................... 87
5.4.1. Preformed resistance ............................... 88
Leaves ............................................. 88
Bark and wood ...................................... 89
5.4.2. Induced resistance ................................. 90
Leaves ............................................. 90
Bark and wood ...................................... 90
Whole tree responses ............................... 91
5.4.3. Tolerance .......................................... 92
5.4.4. Integrated resistance .............................. 92
5.4.5. Environmental effects .............................. 92
5.5. Measuring resistance ...................................... 92
5.6. Tree resistance and pest management ....................... 97
5.6.1. Exploiting natural variation in resistance ......... 98
Interspecific variation and hybridisation .......... 98
Intra-specific variation. 100 Individual
trees ............................................. 100
5.6.2. Breeding for resistance ........................... 103
5.7. Genetic modification ..................................... 105
5.8. Resistance management .................................... 107
Biological control ............................................ 109
6.1. Augmentation and conservation ............................ 110
6.2. Classical biological control ............................. 112
6.2.1. Theory and practice in selection and
release of natural enemies ........................ 116
Evaluation of pest in target region ............... 117
Exploration in pest area of origin ................ 117
Selection of appropriate biocontrol agent ......... 119
Quarantine and rearing ............................ 120
Release ........................................... 120
Evaluation and monitoring ......................... 120
6.2.2. Risk and regulation ............................... 121
6.2.3. Case studies in classical biological control ...... 125
6.3. Economic aspects ......................................... 125
Microbial control ............................................. 127
7.1. Characteristics and ecology of microbial agents .......... 128
7.1.1. Bacillus thuringiensis ............................ 128
7.1.2. Viruses ........................................... 129
7.1.3. Nematodes ......................................... 131
7.1.4. Fungi ............................................. 132
7.2. Experimental and operational use ......................... 133
7.2.1. Bacillus thuringiensis and viruses ................ 133
7.2.2. Nematodes ......................................... 134
7.2.3. Fungi ............................................. 136
7.3. Registration and environmental impact .................... 137
7.3.1. Registration and commercial availability .......... 137
7.3.2. Non-target effects in the environment ............. 138
7.4. Developments in the use of microbial control ............. 140
Semiochemicals ................................................ 142
8.1. Ma ting-disruption ....................................... 145
8.1.1. Development of operational programmes for
mating-disruption ................................. 145
8.2. Mass-trapping ............................................ 147
8.2.1. Development of operational programmes for
mass-trapping ..................................... 149
8.2.2. Case studies in mass-trapping ..................... 152
8.3. Population manipulation .................................. 152
8.3.1. Aggregation pheromones ............................ 153
8.3.2. Antiaggregation pheromones ........................ 155
8.4. Registration and commercial availability of
semiochemicals ........................................... 159
Integrated pest management .................................... 160
9.1. The economics of control ................................. 160
9.1.1. Measuring the economic effects of pest
damage ............................................ 161
9.1.2. Impact on forests and forest ecosystems ........... 162
Growth loss and mortality ......................... 162
Effects on timber quality and on seed loss
in seed orchards .................................. 167
Home and export markets ........................... 168
People and the urban environment .................. 168
Stand composition and ecosystem effects ........... 168
9.2. Decision support and expert systems ...................... 169
9.3. IPM in practice .......................................... 172
9.4. Future developments in pest management ................... 175
9.4.1. Certification, conservation and multiple-use
forests ........................................... 175
9.4.2. Climate change .................................... 178
References .................................................... 185
Glossary of tree names ........................................ 223
General index ................................................. 225
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