Foreword ...................................................... xxv
Preface ..................................................... xxvii
Acknowledgments ............................................ xxxiii
Introduction ................................................. xxxv
PART 1 Basic Concepts of GIS .................................... 1
Chapter 1. Some Concepts that Underpin GIS ...................... 3
OVERVIEW ........................................................ 3
You Ask: "What Is GIS About?" ................................... 3
You Ask Again: "What Is GIS About?" ............................. 4
EXERCISE 1-1 (PROJECT)
Finding a Site by Manual Means .................................. 5
More of What GIS Is About ....................................... 8
Next Steps: Seemingly Independent Things You Need To Know ...... 10
Determining Where Something Is: Coordinate Systems ............. 11
Determining Where Something Is: Latitude and Longitude ......... 13
Geodesy, Coordinate Systems, Geographic Projections, and
Scale ....................................................... 14
Projected Coordinate Systems ................................... 15
Geographic vs. Projected Coordinates: A Comparison ............. 16
Two Projected Coordinate Systems: UTM and State Plane .......... 17
Physical Dimensionality ........................................ 19
Global Positioning Systems ..................................... 21
Remote Sensing ................................................. 21
Relational Databases ........................................... 22
Another Definition of GIS ...................................... 27
Computer Software: In General .................................. 29
Computer Software: ArcGIS in Particular ........................ 29
STEP-BY-STEP ................................................... 31
EXERCISE 1-2 (PROJECT)
Developing a Fast Facts File for the Information You Learn ..... 31
Understanding the File Structure for the Exercises ............. 32
EXERCISE 1-3 (MINOR PROJECT)
Getting Set Up with ArcGIS ..................................... 33
EXERCISE 1-4 (PROJECT)
Looking at the ArcCatalog Program .............................. 34
Anatomy of the ArcCatalog Window ............................... 34
Setting Some Options ........................................... 36
The Catalog Tree ............................................... 38
Connecting to a Folder ......................................... 40
The Toolbars and the Status Bar ................................ 42
Exploring Basic GIS Data Storage Models ........................ 45
EXERCISE 1-5 (MAJOR PROJECT)
Exploring Data with ArcCatalog-Fire Hydrants in
a Village ................................................... 46
Copying Data over to Your Personal Folder ...................... 46
Examining the Table ............................................ 50
Deriving Information from the Table ............................ 51
Sorting the Records ............................................ 51
Finding Values in a Table ...................................... 52
Identifying Geographic Features and Coordinates ................ 53
Looking at GeoGraphics ......................................... 54
Tics and Ticks: Tying Geographic Data to the Real World ........ 56
A First Look at Metadata ....................................... 56
Using ArcCatalog to Place Data in ArcMap ....................... 58
EXERCISE 1-6 (PROJECT)
A Look at Some Spatial Data for Finding a Site for
the Wildcat Boat Facility ................................... 59
Using the Area on the Disk for Your Own Work ................... 60
Copying Data over to Your New Folder ........................... 60
Searching for GIS Data ......................................... 61
Exploring Soils ................................................ 64
But Something Is Missing ....................................... 66
Is the Newly Found Data Applicable? ............................ 67
Making a Personal Geodatabase Feature Class from a Coverage .... 68
Looking at the Landcover Personal Geodatabase .................. 68
Further Examining the Wildcat Boat Facility Area Data Sets ..... 70
Looking at Wildcat Boat Data with ArcMap ....................... 73
Seeing the Results of the Join ................................. 74
EXERCISE 1-7 (PROJECT)
Understanding the ArcGIS Help System ........................... 75
A Button for Instant Help: What's This? ........................ 75
The Help System and Documentation .............................. 76
EXERCISE 1-8 (DULL STUFF)
Using ArcCatalog for Mundane Operations ........................ 78
EXERCISE 1-9 (REVIEW)
Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File ........ 79
What's Next? ................................................... 81
Chapter 2. Characteristics and Examples of Spatial Data ........ 83
OVERVIEW ....................................................... 83
The Original Form of Spatial Data: Maps ........................ 83
Moving Spatial Data from Maps to Computers: Forces for
Change ...................................................... 84
Spatial Data ................................................... 88
Limiting the Scope ............................................. 89
Databases—What's Meant by "Relational" ......................... 89
Spatial Data for Decision Making ............................... 91
Sets of Spatial Data: The Database ............................. 91
Spatial Databases: Inherent Difficulties ....................... 92
Information Systems ............................................ 97
Uses for a Geographic Information System ....................... 99
STEP-BY-STEP .................................................. 109
EXERCISE 2-1 (MOSTLY OUTSIDE)
Appreciating Geographic Space and Spatial Data ................ 109
EXERCISE 2-2 (SETUP)
ArcMap Toolbar Examination and Review ......................... 110
EXERCISE 2-3 (MAJOR PROJECT)
Exploring Different Types of Geographic Data .................. 112
The Basic Difference Between ArcCatalog and ArcMap ............ 112
Exploring Data from the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System
(GPS) ...................................................... 113
Preliminary ................................................... 113
Seeing the GPS File in ArcMap ................................. 113
Looking at the GPS Track in the Context of a Variety of GIS
Data ....................................................... 118
A Potpourri of Types of Geographic Data ....................... 118
Displaying Layers from Vector-Based Data Sets ................. 119
Housekeeping: Saving a Map .................................... 122
Selecting: Both Map Data and Attribute Data ................... 123
Using the Measure Tool ........................................ 125
County Boundaries ............................................. 126
TIGER/Line Files .............................................. 127
The Table of Contents: Display vs. Source vs. Selection ....... 128
EXERCISE 2-4 (MAJOR PROJECT)
A Look at Raster Data ......................................... 130
Digital Raster Graphics and Cell-Based Files .................. 130
Experimenting with Different Ways of Seeing the Data .......... 135
Digital Orthophotos ........................................... 138
More TIGER/Line Files ......................................... 140
Another Tie Between Attributes and Geographies ................ 142
More Housekeeping: Shutting Down and Restarting ArcMap ........ 143
Digital Elevation Model Files ................................. 144
Comparing the DEM and the DRG ................................. 147
Contour Line Files ............................................ 148
EXERCISE 2-5 (MAJOR PROJECT)
Triangulated Irregular Network Files .......................... 149
TINS Are Three-Dimensional Data Sets .......................... 153
EXERCISE 2-6 (PROJECT)
Geodatasets of Soils, Rocks, and Land Use ..................... 154
The Summarizing Procedure ..................................... 154
Some Geological Data .......................................... 157
A GRID of Land Use Data ....................................... 158
Next Steps on Your Own ........................................ 159
EXERCISE 2-7 (REVIEW)
Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File ....... 159
Chapter 3 Products of a GIS: Maps and Other Information ....... 163
OVERVIEW ...................................................... 163
GIS and Cartography—Compatibility? ............................ 163
Products of a Geographic Information System ................... 164
Overall Requirements for Utility .............................. 164
Classification of GIS Products ................................ 165
Documenting Products .......................................... 167
Thoughts on Different Types of Products ....................... 168
STEP-BY-STEP .................................................. 173
The Data View and the Layout View ............................. 173
EXERCISE 3-1 (WARM-UP)
Templates ..................................................... 174
EXERCISE 3-2 (PROJECT)
Templates That Contain Data ................................... 176
Controlling Your View of the Map: Zooming ..................... 178
Geodatabases and Precision .................................... 240
Objects—First Acquaintance .................................... 241
Shapefiles .................................................... 241
Summarizing Vector Data Set Features .......................... 243
Summary of Logical Structures of Vector-Based GIS Data Sets ... 243
Raster-Based Geographic Data Sets—Logical Construction ........ 244
Raster-Based Geographic Data Sets—Layout in the Computer ...... 245
TINs .......................................................... 247
TIN-Based Geographic Data Sets—Layout in the Computer ......... 248
Spatial Reference ............................................. 248
STEP-BY-STEP .................................................. 251
EXERCISE 4-1 (WARM-UP)
Meet ArcToolbox ............................................... 251
EXERCISE 4-2 (WARM-UP)
A Look at Some Trivial Personal Geodatabase Feature
Classes .................................................... 253
More Help ..................................................... 254
EXERCISE 4-3 (WARM-UP)
A Look at Some Trivial Coverage Feature Classes ............... 255
Placing X- and Y-Coordinates in a Coverage .................... 257
EXERCISE 4-4 (WARM-UP)
Making an Arclnfo Coverage Named GENWARMUP .................... 258
The GENERATE Tool Input Text File Specification ............... 258
Creating the Coverage from the Text File ...................... 260
Making a Folder Connection and Looking at the Coverage
with ArcCatalog ............................................ 260
Building Node and Arc Topology ................................ 261
Labeling Features ............................................. 261
Building Polygon Topology ..................................... 263
AREAs and PERIMETERS .......................................... 263
EXERCISE 4-5 (QUICK QUIZ)
Areas and Perimeters .......................................... 264
EXERCISE 4-6 (PROJECT)
Making an Arclnfo Coverage for a Foozit_Court ................. 265
Looking at the Coverage with ArcCatalog ....................... 267
Creating Attribute Tables Using ArcToolbox .................... 267
EXERCISE 4-7 (PROJECT)
Making an Olympic Foozit Court ................................ 268
Seeing a Coverage with Arc Workstation ........................ 270
Using the Workstation GENERATE Command ........................ 271
Using the Generate Module to Add Features to Foozit_Courtn .... 272
BUILD? No? CLEAN? Yes ......................................... 272
Examining the ArcGIS Coverage Directory (Folder) Structure .... 274
Looking at the Association Between the Files in the Info
Folder the Coverages ....................................... 274
EXERCISE 4-8 (EXPLORATION)
Understanding a Couple of Things That Don't Look Right ........ 274
EXERCISE 4-9 (PROJECT)
Geodatabase Topology .......................................... 278
Creating a New Topology ....................................... 279
What Moves When Features Are Adjusted: Rank ................... 279
Topology Rules ................................................ 280
Validating Topology ........................................... 280
A Warning: Changes Made Through Topology Are Permanent ........ 283
EXERCISE 4-10 (REVIEW)
Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File ....... 283
Geographic and Attribute Data: Selection, Input, and
Editing .................................................... 285
OVERVIEW ...................................................... 285
Concerns About Finding and Collecting Data .................... 285
Looking for Data on the Internet .............................. 286
Steps in Developing the Database .............................. 286
GPS and GIS ................................................... 291
Anatomy of the Acronym: "Global Positioning System" ........... 292
What Time Is It? .............................................. 295
STEP-BY-STEP .................................................. 297
EXERCISE 5-1 (WARM-UP)
Looking at Areal Representations of the Real World ............ 297
Looking at Reference Systems .................................. 298
Looking at Coordinate Systems ................................. 299
Using the Reference System to Discover the Boundary
Coordinates of a State Plane Zone .......................... 301
Primary Lesson ................................................ 302
EXERCISE 5-2 (PROJECT)
Looking at Geographic Data on the Web ......................... 303
EXERCISE 5-3 (PROJECT)
Digitizing and Transforming ................................... 303
A Plan for Digitizing and Transforming ........................ 304
Getting Started ............................................... 305
Loading an Image File as a Layer in ArcMap .................... 305
Loading the New, Blank Shapefile into ArcMap .................. 306
Adding Line Features to a Shape File by Using the Editing
Facility in ArcMap ......................................... 306
EXERCISE 5-3A (PROJECT)
Converting a Shapefile to a Geodatabase Feature Class
and Giving It Real-World Coordinates .......................... 310
Converting the Shapefile to a Geodatabase Feature Class ....... 311
Moving the Foozit_Court Feature Class into the Real World ..... 311
EXERCISE 5-3B
From Shapefiie to Coverage to Real World to Geodatabase
Feature Class .............................................. 316
Creating and Transforming a Coverage Based on a Shapefile ..... 316
Building Topology for the Coverage ............................ 316
Verifying the Correctness of the Coverage ..................... 317
Making a New, Blank Coverage, Called REAL_COV, Using the
Tics of DIG_COV ............................................ 317
Updating the Coordinates of the Ticks in REAL_COV
to "Real-World" Coordinates ................................ 318
Transforming the Features of DIG_COV to Make REAL_COV ......... 318
Converting the Arc Component of a Coverage into a
Personal Geodatabase Feature Class ......................... 319
EXERCISE 5-4 (PROJECT)
Digitizing Directly into a Real-World Coordinate System
in a Geodatabase ........................................... 320
Preliminaries ................................................. 321
Making the Feature Class That Will Be Digitized into .......... 321
Georeferencing ................................................ 321
Moving the Sketch to UTM Zone 2 ............................... 322
Digitizing the Line Boundaries of the Islands ................. 324
Making Polygons of the Digitized Lines ........................ 324
Making Multipart Polygons ..................................... 324
Merging Multipart Polygons .................................... 325
EXERCISE 5-5 (WARM-UP)
Digitizing Geodatabase Polygons and Coping with Topology ...... 326
Making Copies of the Feature Class ............................ 328
Using CLIP to Remove Overlaps from the Feature Class .......... 328
Using Topology to Remove Overlaps from the Feature Class ...... 329
EXERCISE 5-6 (PROJECT)
Learning Some Editor Fundamentals ............................. 331
The Concept of the Edit Sketch ................................ 331
Making Sketches with Snapping ................................. 331
Experimenting with Editing and Polygons ....................... 334
Experimenting with the Editor's Union ......................... 334
Experimenting with the Editor's Intersect ..................... 334
Experimenting with the Editor's Buffer ........................ 335
Using Undo, Copy, and Cut ..................................... 335
Working with Editing Lines Again .............................. 335
EXERCISE 5-7 (FOLLOW-ON)
Adding the Sixth Island ....................................... 335
Creating a 3-D Feature ........................................ 338
EXERCISE 5-8 (PROJECT)
Obtaining Field Data and Joining Tables ....................... 339
A Discussion of the Project ................................... 339
Organization .................................................. 340
Environment and Measurements (Spatial Data) ................... 340
Measurements (Nonspatial Data) ................................ 340
Recording Data ................................................ 341
Team Assignments .............................................. 341
Undertaking the Data Entry Process ............................ 342
Making a Table That Will Contain the Student Data ............. 342
Populating the Studentjnfo Table with Data .................... 343
Joining the Two Tables to Make a Single Table ................. 343
Seeing the Results of the Join ................................ 343
EXERCISE 5-9 (REVIEW)
Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File ....... 344
Spatial Analysis and Synthesis with GIS ....................... 347
Analysis of GIS Data by Simple Examination .................... 349
OVERVIEW ...................................................... 349
Information ................................................... 349
Computer Hardware—What a Computer Does ........................ 351
Continuous and Discrete Phenomena ............................. 354
Some Implications of Discrete Representation for GIS .......... 357
Scientific Notation, Numerical Significance, Accuracy, and
Precision .................................................. 357
Precision vs. Accuracy ........................................ 358
Basic Statistics .............................................. 360
Putting Values into Classes ................................... 362
Measurement Scales ............................................ 363
STEP-BY-STEP .................................................. 365
EXERCISE 6-1 (PROJECT)
Reviewing and Learning More of ArcMap ......................... 365
Examining the Toolbars ........................................ 366
Pointing at Records ........................................... 367
Two Windows Are Available for Selecting ....................... 368
Selecting Records (and, Thereby, Features) .................... 369
Looking at the Other Capabilities of the Options Menu ......... 370
Selecting Features (and, Thereby, Records) .................... 370
Quick Selection of Features ................................... 371
Selecting by Location ......................................... 371
Reviewing and Understanding Actions on the Table of
Contents ................................................... 373
Layers and the Data Frames .................................... 373
Changing Layer Properties ..................................... 374
EXERCISE 6-2 (PROJECT)
Categorization and Symbolization .............................. 377
Thinking About Maps Again ..................................... 377
Classification (or Categorization) and Symbolization .......... 378
User Selection of Classes ..................................... 379
A More Careful Look at Equal Intervals ........................ 381
Defined Interval .............................................. 381
Quantiles ..................................................... 381
Standard Deviation ............................................ 381
Natural Breaks ................................................ 382
Normalization ................................................. 382
Using Charts and Graphs ....................................... 383
Making a Layout ............................................... 383
EXERCISE 6-3 (SHORT PROJECT)
Comparing Data Sets: Medically Underserved Areas (MUAs)
and Health Professional Shortage Areas (HPSAs) ................ 384
Geographically Comparing Two Data Sets ........................ 385
EXERCISE 6-4 (PROJECT)
Combining Demographic and Geographic Data ..................... 388
Getting TIGER-Based Street and Block Shapefiles from ESRI ..... 388
Obtaining Data from the U.S. Bureau of the Census ............. 390
Converting the Data Spreadsheet to dBASEIV Format ............. 390
Assessing What We Have and What We Need to Solve the
Problem .................................................... 393
Converting the Relevant Files to Cartesian Coordinates ........ 395
Finally ....................................................... 396
EXERCISE 6-5
Determining Proximity of Points to Points and Lines ........... 397
EXERCISE 6-6 (REVIEW)
Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File ....... 399
Creating Spatial Data Sets Based on Proximity, Overlay, and
Attributes ................................................. 403
OVERVIEW ...................................................... 403
Generating Features Based on Proximity: Buffering ............. 403
Generating Features by Overlaying ............................. 405
Overlaying with Line and Point Feature Classes ................ 408
Spatial Joins in General ...................................... 410
Deriving Geodata Sets by Selecting Attributes: Extraction ..... 410
STEP-BY-STEP
EXERCISE 7-1 (WARM-UP)
Making a Trivial Buffer Around a Trivial Coverage ............. 413
Examining the TICTACTOEBUF Polygon Attribute Table (PAT)
with Arclnfo Workstation ................................... 414
EXERCISE 7-2 (PROJECT)
Exploring PGDBFC Buffers with the Wildcat Boat Data ........... 415
Using ArcMap to Make Buffer Zones Around the Roads ............ 416
Variable-Width Buffers ........................................ 416
EXERCISE 7-3
(PROJECT) Overlaying One Coverage with Another Using UNION .... 418
Making a New Coverage from a Subset of Polygons: Extract ...... 421
More Complex Queries—ANDs and ORs ............................. 423
Other Spatial Joins: INTERSECT and IDENTITY ................... 424
EXERCISE 7-4 (PROJECT)
Using Overlay with Trivial Point and Line Coverages ........... 424
Intersect and Identify Operations Used with Line Coverages .... 426
EXERCISE 7-5 (PROJECT)
Using Buffer and Overlay with Geodatabases .................... 427
The Getrich Saga .............................................. 427
Deriving Information by Combining Tables ...................... 430
Overlaying the Feature Classes ................................ 432
EXERCISE 7-6 (PROJECT)
Building a Model of the Getrich Project Solution .............. 433
EXERCISE 7-7 (MINOR PROJECT)
Making Buffers for Solving the Wildcat Boat Problem ........... 438
EXERCISE 7-8 (PROJECT)
Finding a Site for the Wildcat Boat Facility .................. 438
EXERCISE 7-9 (PROJECT)
Solve a Revised Wildcat Boat Problem .......................... 442
Understanding Dissolve ........................................ 443
Making New Sites Including the COSTJHA Field .................. 444
Considering the Eccentricity Criterion ........................ 444
EXERCISE 7-10 (PROJECT)
Making a Model of the Wildcat Boat Solution ................... 446
EXERCISE 7-11 (REVIEW)
Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File ....... 447
Spatial Analysis Based on Raster Data Processing .............. 449
OVERVIEW ...................................................... 449
A Different Storage Paradigm .................................. 449
Facts About Rasters ........................................... 451
Coordinate Space .............................................. 452
Rasters with Integer Cell Values .............................. 452
Rasters with Floating-Point Values ............................ 456
What Is Raster Storage and Processing Good For? ............... 456
Rasters and Features .......................................... 457
Rasters: Input, Computation, and Output ....................... 458
Where Raster Processing Shines: Cost Incurred Traveling
over a Distance ............................................ 458
Proximity Calculation with Rasters ............................ 459
Human Activity, Cost, and Distance ............................ 459
Euclidian Distances on the Grid ............................... 460
Euclidean Distance and the Spatial Analyst .................... 461
Proving Pythagoras Right ...................................... 462
Multiple Source Cells ......................................... 462
Finding the Closest of Many Source Cells ...................... 463
Excluding Distances Beyond a Certain Threshold ................ 463
Other Factors That Influence Cost ............................. 464
The Cost-Distance Mechanism ................................... 464
The Cost-Distance Calculation ................................. 465
Path Calculation in Euclidian Distance and Cost Distance ...... 466
Understanding How Total Costs Are Calculated .................. 467
Getting More Information: Paths and Allocations ............... 468
Direction and Allocation Grids for Euclidian Distance ......... 468
Direction and Allocation Grids for Cost Distance .............. 469
A Major Application of Raster Processing: Hydrology ........... 470
Basic Surface Hydrology ....................................... 470
How Spatial Analyst Performs Hydrologic Analysis .............. 471
Basic Surface Hydrology Concepts .............................. 471
Calculating Flow Direction .................................... 472
The Ultimate Destination of Water Is off the Raster Area ...... 473
Flow Accumulation: Drainage Delineation and Rainfall Volume ... 473
Calculating the Length of a Potential Linear Water Body ....... 476
Assigning Identities to Streams ............................... 476
Vector vs. Raster Representation .............................. 478
Assigning Orders to Stream Links .............................. 478
Watersheds and Pour Points .................................... 478
STEP-BY-STEP .................................................. 481
EXERCISE 8-1 (PROJECT)
Basic Raster Principles and Operations ........................ 481
The Raster Calculator—Integer Rasters ......................... 484
Arithmetic Calculation ........................................ 485
Boolean Operations ............................................ 485
Floating-Point Rasters ........................................ 486
EXERCISE 8-2 (PROJECT)
Solving the Original Wildcat_Boat Problem ..................... 487
Setting the General and Raster Environment .................... 488
Converting Features to Rasters ................................ 489
Creating Rasters for Sewers, Streams, and Roads ............... 491
Buffering with Spatial Analyst (Maybe) ........................ 493
Buffering—Plan В .............................................. 494
Reclassifying the Data ........................................ 495
Adding the Rasters with the Raster Calculator ................. 496
Converting Zones to Regions ................................... 497
EXERCISE 8-3 (PROJECT)
Solving a Wildcat_Boat Problem with Different Requirements .... 498
ADDRESS GEOCODING: STEP-BY-STEP ............................... 557
EXERCISE 9-3 (PROJECT)
Experimenting with Addresses and Coordinates .................. 557
Finding the Geographic Position of an Address "Manually" ...... 558
Making an Address Locator ..................................... 559
Finding the Geographic Position of an Address
"Automatically" ............................................ 560
TIGER Files and Zip Codes ..................................... 560
More to Know—More Information Available ....................... 560
ANALYSIS OF NETWORKS: OVERVIEW ................................ 562
ANALYSIS OF NETWORKS: STEP-BY-STEP ............................ 563
EXERCISE 9-4 (PROJECT)
Experimenting with Routes and Allocations ..................... 563
Finding the Shortest Route to a Facility ...................... 567
Allocating Territories to Facilities .......................... 567
LINEAR REFERENCING: OVERVIEW .................................. 570
LINEAR REFERENCING: STEP-BY-STEP .............................. 572
EXERCISE 9-5 (PROJECT)
Experimenting within Linear Features .......................... 572
Intersecting Route Events ..................................... 575
What's Not Covered Here ....................................... 577
EXERCISE 9-6 (REVIEW)
Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File ....... 578
Afterword: From Systems to Science ............................ 581
Index ......................................................... 583
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