1. Introduction ................................................. 1
1.1. Classification of Sensors and Actuators ................. 2
1.1.1. Magnetic Sensors ................................. 2
1.1.2. Linear and Latching Solenoid Actuators ........... 3
1.1.3. Stepper Motors ................................... 5
1.1.4. Special Magnetic Devices ......................... 7
1.1.5. Rotary and Linear Actuators ...................... 8
1.2. Magnetic Materials and Technology ....................... 8
1.2.1. Soft Magnetic Materials .......................... 9
1.2.2. Hard Magnetic Materials ......................... 12
1.2.3. Coating Technologies ............................ 15
1.2.4. Magnetic Materials Market and Applications ...... 16
2. Magnetic Sensors ............................................ 21
2.1. Theory of Magnetic Sensors ............................. 23
2.2. Magnetic Sensor Analysis ............................... 24
2.3. VR Sensors ............................................. 26
2.3.1. Conventional VR Sensors ......................... 27
2.3.2. High Performance VR Sensors ..................... 32
2.3.3. Sensors with Inserted Magnets ................... 36
2.3.4. Front-Mounted-Magnet Sensors .................... 43
2.3.5. Sensors with E-Shaped Magnetic Structure ........ 45
2.3.6. Sensors with U-Shaped Magnetic Structure ........ 46
2.3.7. Multiple Magnets VR Sensors ..................... 53
2.3.8. Dual-Magnet Sensors ............................. 53
2.3.9. Dual Sensor Arrangement ......................... 61
2.3.10.Distributed VR Sensors .......................... 63
2.4. Solid-State Sensors .................................... 70
2.4.1. Solid-State Sensor Analysis ..................... 71
2.4.2. Solid-State Sensor Design ....................... 72
2.4.3. Solid-State Sensor Test Results ................. 75
2.5. Magnetic Sensor Applications ........................... 77
2.5.1. Magnetic Speed Sensor Requirements .............. 77
2.5.2. Magnetic Speed Sensor Applications .............. 78
2.5.3. Magnetic Position Sensor Applications ........... 79
2.6. VR Sensor Noise ........................................ 81
2.6.1. Math Model and Noise Analysis ................... 81
2.6.2. Noise Problem Solutions ......................... 82
Example 2.1 ................................................. 85
Example 2.2 ................................................. 86
Example 2.3 ................................................. 88
3. Linear Actuators ............................................ 89
3.1. Mathematical Model for Linear Actuators ................ 89
3.1.1. Symmetrical Analysis of Electromagnetic
Devices ......................................... 90
3.1.2. Electrical Network Equations .................... 92
3.1.3. Mechanical Equations ............................ 94
3.1.4. Magnetic Forces ................................. 96
3.1.5. PWM Analysis .................................... 97
3.1.6. Solenoid Analysis and Simulations .............. 102
3.2. Fast-Acting Actuators ................................. 106
3.2.1. Disk Solenoids ................................. 106
3.2.2. Plunger Solenoids .............................. 108
3.2.3. Ball Solenoids ................................. 110
3.2.4. Conical Solenoids .............................. 112
3.2.5. Optimization of Fast-Acting Actuators .......... 115
3.3. Applications of Solenoid Actuators .................... 118
3.3.1. Long Stroke Solenoid Fuel Pump ................. 118
3.3.2. Gasoline Injectors ............................. 121
3.3.3. Natural Gas Injectors .......................... 125
3.3.4. Diesel Fuel Injectors .......................... 131
3.3.5. Compressor Solenoid Valves ..................... 137
3.3.6. Transmission Solenoids ......................... 140
Example 3.1 ................................................ 149
Example 3.2 ................................................ 151
4. Latching Linear Actuators .................................. 155
4.1. Latching Relays ....................................... 155
4.1.1. Dynamics of Latching Relays .................... 157
4.1.2. Bipolar Latching Relays ........................ 159
4.1.3. Unipolar Latching Relays ....................... 163
4.1.4. Latching Relay Analysis ........................ 165
4.1.5. Latching Relay Analysis and Tests .............. 168
4.2. Latching Solenoids .................................... 173
4.2.1. Latching Solenoids with Moving Magnets ......... 174
4.2.2. Latching Solenoids with Stationary Magnets ..... 182
4.3. Latching Solenoid Applications ........................ 189
Example 4.1 ................................................ 190
5. Stepper Motors ............................................. 191
5.1. Principles of Operation ............................... 191
5.2. Static Analysis of Stepper Motor ...................... 196
5.2.1. Static Torque Analysis ......................... 196
5.2.2. Magnetic-Circuit Analysis ...................... 201
5.2.3. Magnet Operating Point ......................... 207
5.2.4. Temperature Effect ............................. 210
5.2.5. Armature Reaction Effect ....................... 210
5.2.6. Experimental Results of Static Performance ..... 211
5.3. Dynamic Analysis of Stepper Motor ..................... 217
5.3.1. Math Model of the Dynamic Operation ............ 218
5.3.2. Stepper Motor Dynamic Simulation ............... 221
5.3.3. Validation of the Dynamic Model ................ 223
5.3.4. Effects of Various Parameters on Stepper
Motor Performance .............................. 226
5.3.5. Experimental Results of Dynamic Performance .... 231
5.3.6. Evaluation of Viscous Damping Coefficient ...... 233
5.3.7. Effects of Load Torque on Stepper Motor
Performance .................................... 237
5.3.8. Stepper Motor Inductance in Dynamic
Operation ...................................... 242
Example 5.1: Magnetic-Circuit Calculations ................. 250
Example 5.2: Static Torque Calculations .................... 256
Example 5.3: Magnetic Flux Calculations .................... 257
6. Special Magnetic Devices ................................... 261
6.1. Magnetic Valves ....................................... 261
6.1.1. Background ..................................... 262
6.1.2. Heart Valve Requirements ....................... 262
6.1.3. Heart Valve Design Concept ..................... 265
6.1.4. Mathematical Model and Simulations ............. 265
6.1.5. Optimized Design ............................... 269
6.1.6. Comparison and Test Results .................... 272
6.2. Heart Pump ............................................ 273
6.2.1. Heart Pump Requirements ........................ 274
6.2.2. Heart Pump Design Concept ...................... 275
6.2.3. Analytical Simulations and Optimized Design .... 275
6.3. Magnetorheological Fluid Solenoids .................... 281
6.3.1. Background ..................................... 281
6.3.2. Magnetorheological Fluid Solenoid Actuator ..... 283
6.3.3. MR Fluid Applications .......................... 284
Example 6.1 ................................................ 287
Example 6.2 ................................................ 288
Example 6.3 ................................................ 288
7. Rotary Actuators ........................................... 291
7.1. Disk Rotary Actuators ................................. 292
7.1.1. Disk Rotary Actuator Analysis .................. 293
7.1.2. Disk Rotary Actuator Design .................... 298
7.1.3. Disk Rotary Actuator Excitation
Electromagnetic Circuit ........................ 298
7.1.4. Disk Rotary Actuator Toothed Magnetic Part ..... 299
7.1.5. Disk Rotary Actuator PM ........................ 300
7.1.6. Disk Rotary Actuator Test Results .............. 302
7.2. Claw Pole Rotary Actuators ............................ 304
7.2.1. Claw Pole Rotary Actuator Analysis ............. 306
7.2.2. Claw Pole Rotary Actuator Design ............... 309
7.2.3. Claw Pole Rotary Actuator Excitation
Electromagnetic Circuit ........................ 309
7.2.4. Claw Pole Actuator Toothed Magnetic Part ....... 310
7.2.5. Claw Pole Actuator PM .......................... 310
7.2.6. Claw Pole Rotary Actuator Test Results ......... 313
7.3. Cylindrical Rotary Actuators .......................... 316
7.3.1. Cylindrical Rotary Actuator Analysis ........... 317
7.3.2. Cylindrical Rotary Actuator 2D Analysis ........ 318
7.3.3. Cylindrical Rotary Actuator 3D Analysis and
Test Results ................................... 322
7.3.4. Cylindrical Rotary Actuator Design ............. 325
7.3.5. Cylindrical Rotary Actuator PM ................. 326
7.3.6. Cylindrical Rotary Actuator Excitation
Electromagnetic Circuit ........................ 332
7.3.7. Cylindrical Rotary Actuator Toothed Magnetic
Structure ...................................... 332
7.4. Rotary Actuator Applications .......................... 333
7.4.1. Disk Rotary Actuator Application ............... 335
7.4.2. Claw Pole Rotary Actuator Application .......... 336
7.4.3. Cylindrical Rotary Actuator Application ........ 338
Example 7.1 ................................................ 342
Example 7.2 ................................................ 343
Example 7.3 ................................................ 343
8. Addendum ................................................... 345
8.1. Technology Development ................................ 345
8.1.1. Partnership .................................... 345
8.1.2. Competitiveness ................................ 346
8.1.3. Persistence .................................... 347
8.1.4. Technical Growth ............................... 348
8.2. Technology Valuation .................................. 349
8.2.1. Technical Attributes ........................... 349
8.2.2. Business Attributes ............................ 353
8.2.3. Financial Attributes ........................... 354
8.2.4. Technology Ranking ............................. 355
Bibliography .................................................. 357
Index ......................................................... 363
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