Dunn C.E. Biogeochemistry in mineral exploration. - Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2007. - 462 p. - (Handbook of exploration and environmental geochemistry; 9). - ISBN 978-0-444-53074-5; ISSN 1874-2734  Место хранения:   018 | Институт нефтегазовой геологии и геофизики им. А.А.Трофимука | Новосибирск | Библиотека

Оглавление / Contents

Editor's Foreword ............................................ XIII Preface ........................................................ XV Chapter 1. Introduction ......................................... 1 Setting the scene ............................................... 1 Biogeochemistry and geobotany ................................... 1 General considerations and distinctions ...................... 1 History of geobotany ......................................... 4 History of biogeochemistry ................................... 5 Plant evolution and chemistry .................................. 10 Barrier mechanisms ............................................. 17 Chapter 2. Plant Function, Chemistry and Mineralogy ............ 21 Plant requirements ............................................. 21 Element uptake and function .................................... 24 Root form and controls on element uptake ....................... 27 Summary comments on chemical requirements of plants ............ 28 Mineralogy of plants ........................................... 30 Chapter 3. Field Guide 1: Climatic and Geographic Zones ........ 37 Selection of plant species ..................................... 37 Orientation ................................................. 38 Boreal (northern) forest .................................... 42 Black spruce ............................................. 44 Balsam fir ............................................... 47 Alder .................................................... 48 Temperate coniferous forest ................................. 49 Temperate deciduous forest .................................. 50 Tundra ...................................................... 51 Arid and semi-arid environments - general comments .......... 52 North America - arid and semi-arid .......................... 52 Northern basin and range ................................. 52 Southern basin and range, and desert of the southwestern USA and Mexico .............................. 52 Central America ............................................. 53 North Africa-arid - southern Morocco into the Sahara Desert ...................................................... 53 Mediterranean coast ......................................... 53 Middle East - from Turkey and Armenia, through Saudi Arabia to Pakistan, and Africa east of the Sahara ........... 54 Central, West and South Africa .............................. 54 India ....................................................... 55 China, Mongolia and Japan ................................... 56 Australia ................................................... 57 South America (excluding the Amazon) ........................ 58 Humid tropics - Amazon, West Africa, Indonesia .............. 59 Summary notes .................................................. 60 Chapter 4. Field Guide 2: Sample Selection and Collection ...... 63 General considerations ......................................... 63 Seasonal variations ......................................... 66 Summary considerations of seasonal variations - a practical approach ........................................ 72 Selection of tissue type ....................................... 73 Element differences among plant species ..................... 74 The inhomogeneity of trees .................................. 77 Bark ........................................................ 81 Twigs ....................................................... 85 Foliage ..................................................... 86 Trunk wood .................................................. 89 Treetops .................................................... 90 Cones ....................................................... 96 Stunted trees of the Tundra ................................. 97 LFH/forest litter/humus ..................................... 99 Flowers, seeds, spores and pollen .......................... 100 Summary ....................................................... 102 Sample collection ............................................. 106 Precautions ................................................ 106 Field accessories .......................................... 109 Sample bags ................................................ 1ll Sample size ................................................ 113 Samples required for quality control ....................... 113 Checklist for vegetation sample collection and site observations ............................................... 114 Field drying and shipping .................................. 116 Alternative samples ........................................... 116 Saps ....................................................... 116 Fungi ...................................................... 119 Moss ....................................................... 120 Seaweed .................................................... 122 Geozoology ................................................. 124 Chapter 5. Survey Design and Comparisons with Other Sample Media .............................................. 127 Introduction .................................................. 127 Survey design ................................................. 129 Scale of survey ............................................... 130 Low density (1 site per 10 km2 or greater) - Reconnaissance level ....................................... 130 Moderate density (1 site per 1-10 km2) ..................... 134 Semi-detailed surveys (1 site per 0.25-1 km2) .............. 136 Detailed surveys (25-200 m spacing) ........................ 139 Comparisons with other types of geochemical survey ............ 143 Vegetation versus Soils .................................... 144 Vegetation versus Glacial Tills ............................ 146 Comparison of multi-media reconnaissance-level surveys using plants, soils, and sediments from lakes and streams .................................................... 148 Summary ....................................................... 149 Chapter 6. Sample Preparation and Decomposition ............... 151 Introduction .................................................. 151 Washing ....................................................... 151 Thorough washing using solvents or dispersants ............. 151 Washing in water ........................................... 154 Particle and sample size ...................................... 159 Sample decomposition .......................................... 163 Dry ashing .................................................... 165 Element volatilization ..................................... 165 Dry ashing - the realities ................................. 169 A special case: Vegetation from sites near smelters or other sites of point-source metal emissions ................... 174 Wet decomposition ............................................. 178 Microwave digestion ........................................... 179 Selective leaching ............................................ 180 Fusions ....................................................... 185 Standard reference materials and analytical controls .......... 186 Summary ....................................................... 189 Chapter 7. Plant Analysis ..................................... 191 'Fit for purpose' ............................................. 192 Analytical techniques ......................................... 194 Analytical instrumentation .................................... 196 Atomic absorption spectrometry ............................. 196 Inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry (ICP-ES) ................................................... 197 Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) ...... 200 Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) ............ 204 X-ray fluorescence (XRF) ................................... 208 Summary ....................................................... 209 Chapter 8. The Eden Project - Source of a Biogeochemical Database ........................................... 213 Introduction .................................................. 213 Samples in the collection ..................................... 213 Soil in the biomes ............................................ 214 Foliage collection from the biomes ............................ 215 Chapter 9. Biogeochemical Behaviour of the Elements ........... 229 Introduction .................................................. 229 The importance of data quality ................................ 229 Elements in plants and their relevance to mineral exploration ................................................... 231 Aluminium (Al) ............................................. 232 Antimony (Sb) .............................................. 233 Arsenic (As) ............................................... 234 Barium (Ba) ................................................ 236 Beryllium (Be) ............................................. 237 Bismuth (Bi) ............................................... 239 Boron (B) .................................................. 240 Bromine (Br) ............................................... 241 Cadmium (Cd) ............................................... 242 Calcium (Ca) ............................................... 243 Cerium (Ce) ................................................ 244 Cesium (Cs) ................................................ 245 Chromium (Cr) .............................................. 246 Chlorine (CI) .............................................. 248 Cobalt (Co) ................................................ 248 Copper (Cu) ................................................ 249 Dysprosium (Dy) ............................................ 250 Erbium (Er) ................................................ 250 Europium (Eu) .............................................. 251 Fluorine (F) ............................................... 251 Gadolinium (Gd) ............................................ 251 Gallium (Ga) ............................................... 251 Germanium (Ge) ............................................. 252 Gold (Au) .................................................. 253 Hafnium (HO ................................................ 257 Halogens (F, Br, CI and I) ................................. 258 Holmium (Ho) ............................................... 259 Indium (In) ................................................ 259 Iodine (I) ................................................. 259 Iridium (Ir) ............................................... 259 Iron (Fe) .................................................. 259 Lanthanum (La), the rare earth elements (REE) and yttrium (Y) ................................................ 260 Lead (Pb) .................................................. 264 Lithium (Li) ............................................... 266 Lutetium (Lu) .............................................. 267 Magnesium (Mg) ............................................. 267 Manganese (Mn) ............................................. 268 Mercury (Hg) ............................................... 269 Molybdenum (Mo) ............................................ 275 Neodymium (Nd) ............................................. 278 Nickel (Ni) ................................................ 279 Niobium (Nb) ............................................... 282 Osmium (Os) ................................................ 283 Palladium (Pd) ............................................. 283 Phosphorus (P) ............................................. 283 Platinum (Pt) and the platinum group elements (PGEs) -palladium (Pd), iridium (Ir), osmium (Os), rhodium (Rh) and ruthenium (Ru) .................................... 285 Praseodymium (Pr) .......................................... 290 Promethium (Pm) ............................................ 290 Potassium (K) .............................................. 291 Radium (Ra) ................................................ 291 Rhenium (Re) ............................................... 292 Rhodium (Rh) ............................................... 295 Rubidium (Rb) .............................................. 295 Ruthenium (Ru) ............................................. 296 Samarium (Sm) .............................................. 296 Scandium (Sc) .............................................. 297 Selenium (Se) .............................................. 298 Silver (Ag) ................................................ 299 Sodium (Na) ................................................ 302 Strontium (Sr) ............................................. 303 Sulphur (S) ................................................ 304 Tantalum (Та) .............................................. 306 Tellurium (Те) ............................................. 308 Terbium (Tb) ............................................... 310 Thallium (Tl) .............................................. 310 Thorium (Th) ............................................... 312 Thulium (Tm) ............................................... 314 Tin(Sn) .................................................... 314 Titanium (Ti) .............................................. 316 Tungsten (W) ............................................... 316 Uranium (U) ................................................ 317 Vanadium (V) ............................................... 320 Ytterbium (Yb) ............................................. 321 Yttrium (Y) ................................................ 321 Zinc (Zn) .................................................. 322 Zirconium (Zr) ............................................. 324 Chapter 10. Data Handling and Analysis ........................ 327 First estimation of the data .................................. 327 Computer software tools ....................................... 330 Data analysis ................................................. 331 Univariate statistics ...................................... 332 Bivariate statistics ....................................... 335 Multivariate analysis ...................................... 335 Map plots of data distributions ............................... 338 Unusual concentrations of selected elements ................... 339 Analytical artefacts ....................................... 339 Sampling and sample preparation artefacts .................. 340 Contamination of the natural environment ................... 340 Species-specific enrichments ............................... 341 Chapter 11. Case Histories .................................... 343 Gold .......................................................... 344 Canada: La Ronge and Glennie Domains, Northern Saskatchewan ............................................... 344 Rod Zone - Jolu Mine - La Ronge Domain .................................................. 344 Geology and mineralization ........................... 344 Biogeochemical survey ................................ 345 Post survey exploration .............................. 345 Jasper pond ............................................. 345 Geology and mineralization ........................... 345 Biogeochemical surveys ............................... 346 Post survey development .............................. 347 Seabee Mine, Laonil Lake ................................ 347 Geology and mineralization ........................... 347 Biogeochemical survey ................................ 348 Post survey developments ............................. 348 Canada: Temperate forest of British Columbia QR (Quesnel River) deposit ........................... 349 Geology and mineralization ........................... 349 Environment .......................................... 349 Scope of survey and analysis ......................... 349 Results .............................................. 349 South America: Peru-Ecuador Border ............................ 350 Cordillera del Condor Geology and mineralization .............................. 350 Environment ............................................. 351 Scope of survey and analysis ............................ 351 South America: Bolivia and Argentina .............................................. 356 Geology and mineralization ........................... 356 Environment .......................................... 356 Biogeochemical surveys ............................... 356 Summary of results from the orientation surveys ...... 360 Platinum group metals/nickel/copper ........................... 361 Canada: Rottenstone Lake, northern Saskatchewan ............ 361 Geology and mineralization .............................. 361 Environment ............................................. 362 Exploration history ..................................... 362 Biogeochemical surveys .................................. 363 Post survey exploration ................................. 366 Summary notes ........................................... 366 Nickel ........................................................ 366 Canada: Thompson Nickel Belt, Northern Manitoba ............ 366 Geology and mineralization .............................. 366 Environment ............................................. 366 Biogeochemical survey ................................... 367 Post survey exploration ................................. 372 Uranium ....................................................... 373 Canada: Athabasca Basin, Northern Saskatchewan ............. 373 Geology and mineralization .............................. 373 Exploration history ..................................... 373 Environment ............................................. 374 Biogeochemical surveys .................................. 374 Subsequent discoveries .................................. 380 Summary notes ........................................... 381 Kimberlites ................................................... 381 Canada: Ekati Trend, Lac de Gras, Northwest Territories .... 381 Geology ................................................. 381 Environment ............................................. 382 Biogeochemical survey ................................... 382 South Africa: Kimberley .................................... 384 Geology ................................................. 384 Environment ............................................. 386 Biogeochemical surveys .................................. 386 Expanded surveys - summary observations ................. 387 Canada: Buffalo Head Hills, North-Central Alberta .......... 388 Geology ................................................. 388 Exploration history ..................................... 389 Environment ............................................. 390 Biogeochemical survey ................................... 390 Kimberlites - summary ...................................... 391 Chapter 12. Exploration Geomicrobiology - The New Frontier .... 393 Introduction .................................................. 393 Significance of micro-organisms as biogeochemical agents ...... 394 Methods for identifying micro-organisms and microbial processes ..................................................... 397 Culture-dependent techniques ............................... 397 Culture-independent methods ................................ 399 Molecular procedures .......................................... 399 Extraction and purification of nucleic acids from soils .... 399 Amplification of target genes from extracted DNA or RNA ....... 400 Assessing genetic diversity ................................ 402 Genetic fingerprinting ..................................... 402 Case studies .................................................. 403 Case Study 1 - The geomicrobiological cycling of gold ...... 403 Case Study 2 - Microbial diversity in soils and sediments contaminated with Zn and Cu ................................ 409 Case Study 3 - Bacterial biosensors as alternatives for measuring heavy metals in soil extracts .................... 410 Future technologies for bio-prospecting ....................... 410 Conclusions ................................................... 413 Chapter 13. A Look to the Future .............................. 415 Introduction .................................................. 415 Hyperspectral imagery in relation to biogeochemistry .......... 415 Exploration geomicrobiology ................................... 417 Forensic biogeochemistry ...................................... 417 Plant mineralogy .............................................. 418 Chemical analysis ............................................. 418 Concluding remarks ............................................ 419 References .................................................... 421 Botanical Index ............................................... 451 Subject Index ................................................. 455 Contents of CD ................................................ 461