List of Illustrations .......................................... xi
Acknowledgments ................................................ xv
Explanation of Romanization and Abbreviations ................ xvii
Preface ....................................................... xix
Introduction: Tibetan Society, 1913-1951 ........................ 1
I. THE ERA OF THE 13TH DALAI LAMA AND RETING, 1913-1941
1. The Early Years of the 13th Dalai Lama ...................... 41
2. Tibet and the New Republic in China ......................... 65
3. The Dalai Lama, the Army, and the Monastic Segment .......... 89
4. The Death of the 13th Dalai Lama ........................... 139
5. The Fall of Kumbela ........................................ 146
6. In Search of a New Tibet: Lungshar's Reform Party .......... 186
7. The Mission of General Huang Mu-sung ....................... 213
8. The British, the Chinese, and the Panchen Lama ............. 252
9. Reting Takes Control, Then Resigns ......................... 310
10.Conclusion to Part One: The Reting Years ................... 364
II.THE ERA OF TAKTRA AND THE 14TH DALAI LAMA, 1941-1951
11.The Early Years of the Taktra Regency: 1941-1943 ........... 369
12.Change and Confrontation in the Twilight ofWorldWarll ...... 405
13.The Seeds of Rebellion ..................................... 427
14.The Reting Conspiracy ...................................... 464
15.The Victory Congratulations Mission, 1945-1946 ............. 522
16.Further Attempts at International Visibility ............... 560
17.Tibet after the Fall of the Kuomintang ..................... 611
18.The People's Liberation Army Invades ....................... 638
19.After the Fall of Chamdo ................................... 698
20.Tibet Capitulates: The Seventeen-Point Agreement ........... 737
21.The Dalai Lama Returns to Lhasa ............................ 773
Conclusion: The Demise of the Lamaist State ................... 815
Postscript .................................................... 825
Appendix A. Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906 .................. 827
Appendix B. Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 .................. 829
Appendix С. The Simla Agreements of 1914 ...................... 832
Glossary of Tibetan Terms ..................................... 843
References .................................................... 845
Correct Tibetan Spellings ..................................... 855
Index ......................................................... 883
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURES
1. Structure of the Tibetan government ......................... 11
2. Ranks and positions in the Tibetan government ............... 13
3. Sera monastery .............................................. 25
4. Drepung monastery ........................................... 27
5. Lhasa valley and city as seen from the south (1936) ......... 28
6. Potala and Shöl Town (1936) ................................. 29
7. Monastic structure .......................................... 30
8. 13th Dalai Lama and Sir Charles Bell (ca. 1920-1921) ........ 55
9. Leading military and lay/monk officials (ca. 1920-1923) ..... 90
10.Drönyerchemmo Ara gaapo ..................................... 92
11.Convict in Lhasa market in leg shackles and neck
cangue (1936) .............................................. 109
12.The 9th Panchen Lama ....................................... 111
13.English school in Gyantse, group portrait .................. 122
14.English school in Gyantse, classroom photo ................. 123
15.Norbhu Döndup .............................................. 127
16.Lönchen Langdün(1936) ...................................... 148
17.Kumbela in Kalimpong (ca. 1937-1946) ....................... 149
18.Commanders Yuthok and Taring (1936) ........................ 153
19.Lungshar with four Tibetan students (ca. 1912) ............. 157
20.Lady Lhalu, Lungshar and wife, Lungshar's children
(1931) ..................................................... 158
21.Trimön Shape and Tsarong Dzasa and wife (1936) ............. 164
22.Samdra writing slate ....................................... 169
23.Reting Rimpoche with his bodyguard (1936) .................. 187
24.Lhasa officials with Kapshöba (1937) ....................... 188
25.The four shapes in 1936 .................................... 227
26.Ngagchen Rimpoche .......................................... 257
27.The four trunyichemmo in 1936 .............................. 258
28.Tibetan army demonstrating machine guns in Lhasa (1936) .... 281
29.Tibetan army demonstrating ten-pound mountain guns
in Lhasa (1936) ............................................ 282
30.An "arrow letter" (dayik) .................................. 291
31.Young 14th Dalai Lama in Amdo .............................. 320
32.Young 14th Dalai Lama in Lhasa ............................. 326
33.Father and mother of 14th Dalai Lama (ca. 1940) ............ 327
34.Reting Dzasa (1936) ........................................ 332
35.Phunkang in his sitting room (1936) ........................ 338
36.Khyungram .................................................. 339
37.Cogtray and his wife, Namkye Tsedron ....................... 341
38.Reting relaxing in Tsarong House ........................... 354
39.Taktra ..................................................... 356
40.Tseyang .................................................... 358
41.Tsarong, Thubten Gyentsen, and Nyungne Lama ................ 361
42.The three shapes in 1943 ................................... 374
43.Surkhang Shape (ca. 1945) .................................. 376
44.Tibet's first foreign secretaries .......................... 382
45.Gifts sent by President Roosevelt (1943) ................... 393
46.Reting, Derge Sey and Ilia Tolstoy (1943) .................. 394
47.British officials in Basil Gould's 1944 mission ............ 408
48.Four trunyichemmo (ca. 1948) ............................... 430
49.Leaders of the Tibet Improvement Party ..................... 451
50.Gendun Chömpel in India .................................... 452
51.Badge of the Tibet Improvement Party ....................... 455
52.Application form of the Tibet Improvement Party ............ 456
53.Membership card of the Tibet Improvement Party ............. 457
54.Sketch of parcel bomb ...................................... 469
55.Four tsipons (ca. 1945) .................................... 479
56.View from Sera to Trapchi .................................. 493
57.Two foreign secretaries .................................... 533
58.The Victory Congratulations mission in India ............... 551
59.The Tibetan trade mission of 1948 .......................... 573
60.Shakabpa's passport ........................................ 587
61.Taktse Rimpoche ............................................ 738
MAPS
(Preceding Page 1)
1. Tibet in relation to Asia
2. The Lhasa valley
3. Lhasa city, ca. 1935
4. Tibet
5. Eastern Tibet (Kham)
6. The Simla Convention boundaries
7. The North East Frontier Agency
8. The Tawang area
9. Proposed roads from India to China
10.Sketch map of Sera monastery and environs
11.Attack routes of The People's Liberation Army in Kham
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