Contributors ................................................... XI
Abbreviations ................................................ XIII
1. Historical Development (W.R.Fahrner) ......................... 1
1.1. Miniaturization of Electrical and Electronic Devices ....... 1
1.2. Moore's Law and the SIA Roadmap ............................ 2
2. Quantum Mechanical Aspects ................................... 5
2.1. General Considerations (W.R.Fahrner) ....................... 5
2.2. Simulation of the Properties of Molecular Clusters
(A.Ulyashin) ............................................... 5
2.3. Formation of the Energy Gap (A. Ulyashin) .................. 7
2.4. Preliminary Considerations for Lithography
(W.R.Fahrner) .............................................. 8
2.5. Confinement Effects (W.R.Fahrner) ......................... 12
2.5.1. Discreteness of Energy Levels ...................... 13
2.5.2. Tunneling Currents ................................. 14
2.6. Evaluation and Future Prospects (W.R.Fahrner) ............. 14
3. Nanodefects (W.R.Fahrner) ................................... 17
3.1. Generation and Forms of Nanodefects in Crystals ........... 17
3.2. Characterization of Nanodefects in Crystals ............... 18
3.3. Applications of Nanodefects in Crystals ................... 28
3.3.1. Lifetime Adjustment ................................ 28
3.3.2. Formation of Thermal Donors ........................ 30
3.3.3. Smart and Soft Cut ................................. 31
3.3.4. Light-emitting Diodes .............................. 34
3.4. Nuclear Track Nanodefects ................................. 35
3.4.1. Production of Nanodefects with Nuclear Tracks ...... 35
3.4.2. Applications of Nuclear Tracks for Nanodevices ..... 36
3.5. Evaluation and Future Prospects ...................... 37
4. Nanolayers (W.R.Fahrner) .................................... 39
4.1. Production of Nanolayers .................................. 39
4.1.1. Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) .................... 39
4.1.2. Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) .................... 44
4.1.3. Epitaxy ............................................ 47
4.1.4. Ion Implantation ................................... 52
4.1.5. Formation of Silicon Oxide ......................... 59
4.2. Characterization of Nanolayers ............................ 63
4.2.1. Thickness, Surface Roughness ....................... 63
4.2.2. Crystallinity ...................................... 76
4.2.3. Chemical Composition ............................... 82
4.2.4. Doping Properties .................................. 86
4.2.5. Optical Properties ................................. 97
4.3. Applications of Nanolayers ............................... 103
4.4. Evaluation and Future Prospects .......................... 103
5. Nanoparticles (W.R.Fahrner) ................................ 107
5.1. Fabrication of Nanoparticles ............................. 107
5.1.1. Grinding with Iron Balls .......................... 107
5.1.2. Gas Condensation .................................. 107
5.1.3. Laser Ablation .................................... 107
5.1.4. Thermal and Ultrasonic Decomposition .............. 108
5.1.5. Reduction Methods ................................. 109
5.1.6. Self-Assembly ..................................... 109
5.1.7. Low-Pressure, Low-Temperature Plasma .............. 109
5.1.8. Thermal High-Speed Spraying of
Oxygen/Powder/Fuel ................................ 110
5.1.9. Atom Optics ....................................... 111
5.1.10.Sol gels .......................................... 112
5.1.11.Precipitation of Quantum Dots ..................... 113
5.1.12.Other Procedures .................................. 114
5.2. Characterization of Nanoparticles ........................ 114
5.2.1. Optical Measurements .............................. 114
5.2.2. Magnetic Measurements ............................. 115
5.2.3. Electrical Measurements ........................... 115
5.3. Applications of Nanoparticles ............................ 117
5.4. Evaluation and Future Prospects .......................... 118
6. Selected Solid States with Nanocrystalline Structures ...... 121
6.1. Nanocrystalline Silicon (W.R.Fahrner) .................... 121
6.1.1. Production of Nanocrystalline Silicon ............. 121
6.1.2. Characterization of Nanocrystalline Silicon ....... 122
6.1.3. Applications of Nanocrystalline Silicon ........... 126
6.1.4. Evaluation and Future Prospects ................... 126
6.2. Zeolites and Nanoclusters in Zeolite Host Lattices
(R.Job) .................................................. 127
6.2.1. Description of Zeolites ........................... 127
6.2.2. Production and Characterization of Zeolites ....... 128
6.2.3. Nanoclusters in Zeolite Host Lattices ............. 135
6.2.4. Applications of Zeolites and Nanoclusters in
Zeolite Host Lattices ............................. 138
6.2.5. Evaluation and Future Prospects ................... 139
7. Nanostructuring ............................................ 143
7.1. Nanopolishing of Diamond (W.R.Fahrner) ................... 143
7.1.1. Procedures of Nanopolishing ....................... 143
7.1.2. Characterization of the Nanopolishing ............. 144
7.1.3. Applications, Evaluation, and Future Prospects .... 147
7.2. Etching of Nanostractures (U.Hilleringmann) .............. 150
7.2.1. State-of-the-Art .................................. 150
7.2.2. Progressive Etching Techniques .................... 153
7.2.3. Evaluation and Future Prospects ................... 154
7.3. Lithography Procedures (U.Hilleringmann) ................. 154
7.3.1. State-of-the-Art .................................. 155
7.3.2. Optical Lithography ............................... 155
7.3.3. Perspectives for the Optical Lithography .......... 161
7.3.4. Electron Beam Lithography ......................... 164
7.3.5. Ion Beam Lithography .............................. 168
7.3.6. X-Ray and Synchrotron Lithography ................. 169
7.3.7. Evaluation and Future Prospects ................... 171
7.4. Focused Ion Beams (A.Wieck) .............................. 172
7.4.1. Principle and Motivation .......................... 172
7.4.2. Equipment ......................................... 173
7.4.3. Theory ............................................ 180
7.4.4. Applications ...................................... 181
7.4.5. Evaluation and Future Prospects ................... 188
7.5. Nanoimprinting (H.Scheer) ................................ 188
7.5.1. What is Nanoimprinting? ........................... 188
7.5.2. Evaluation and Future Prospects ................... 194
7.6. Atomic Force Microscopy (W.R.Fahrner) .................... 195
7.6.1. Description of the Procedure and Results .......... 195
7.6.2. Evaluation and Future Prospects ................... 195
7.7. Near-Field Optics (W.R.Fahrner) .......................... 196
7.7.1. Description of the Method and Results ............. 196
7.7.2. Evaluation and Future Prospects ................... 198
8. Extension of Conventional Devices by Nanotechniques ........ 201
8.1. MOS Transistors (U.Hilleringmann, T.Horstmann) ........... 201
8.1.1. Structure and Technology .......................... 201
8.1.2. Electrical Characteristics of Sub-100 nm MOS
Transistors ....................................... 204
8.1.3. Limitations of the Minimum Applicable Channel
Length ............................................ 207
8.1.4. Low-Temperature Behavior .......................... 209
8.1.5. Evaluation and Future Prospects ................... 210
8.2. Bipolar Transistors (U.Hilleringmann) .................... 211
8.2.1. Structure and Technology .......................... 211
8.2.2. Evaluation and Future Prospects ................... 212
9. Innovative Electronic Devices Based on Nanostructures
(H.С.Neitzert) ............................................ 213
9.1. General Properties ....................................... 213
9.2. Resonant Tunneling Diode ................................. 213
9.2.1. Operating Principle and Technology ................ 213
9.2.2. Applications in High Frequency and Digital
Electronic Circuits and Comparison with
Competitive Devices ............................... 216
9.3. Quantum Cascade Laser .................................... 219
9.3.1. Operating Principle and Structure ................. 219
9.3.2. Quantum Cascade Lasers in Sensing and Ultrafast
Free Space Communication Applications ............. 224
9.4. Single Electron Transistor ............................... 225
9.4.1. Operating Principle ............................... 225
9.4.2. Technology ........................................ 227
9.4.3. Applications ...................................... 229
9.5. Carbon Nanotube Devices .................................. 232
9.5.1. Structure and Technology .......................... 232
9.5.2. Carbon Nanotube Transistors ....................... 234
References .................................................... 239
Index ......................................................... 261
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