 | Veeken P.C.H. Seismic stratigraphy, basin analysis and reservoir characterization. - Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2007. - xi, 509 p.: ill., maps. - (Handbook of geophysical exploration. Seismic exploration; 37) - ISBN 0-08-045311-2
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Sponsorship ..................................................... v
Preface ....................................................... vii
1. Introduction ................................................. 1
2. The Seismic Reflection Method and Some of
Its Constraints .............................................. 7
2.1. Basic Processing Concepts .................................. 7
2.1.1. Common Mid Point domain ............................. 9
2.1.2. Normal Move Out and stacking procedure .............. 9
2.1.3. Seismic velocity analysis .......................... 15
2.1.4. Seismic absorption and anisotropy .................. 16
2.1.5. Migration of seismic data .......................... 20
2.1.6. Common Reflection Surface processing ............... 32
2.1.7. Tau-P domain processing ............................ 34
2.1.8. 3D seismic surveys ................................. 34
2.2. Seismic Resolution ........................................ 37
2.2.1. Vertical seismic resolution ........................ 37
2.2.2. Horizontal seismic resolution ...................... 39
2.3. Amplitude and Frequency ................................... 41
2.3.1. Wave propagation and elastic
attributes ......................................... 41
2.3.2. Preserved amplitude ................................ 45
2.3.3. Reflection frequency and composite
seismic loops ...................................... 48
2.4. Seismic Wavelet ........................................... 48
2.5. Seismic Display ........................................... 49
2.5.1. Seismic polarity ................................... 54
2.5.2. Hilbert transform .................................. 56
2.6. Interval Velocities ....................................... 58
2.7. Data Conditioning and Reprocessing ........................ 63
2.7.1. Fourier and Radon transforms ....................... 64
2.7.2. Dip Move Out (DMO) ................................. 70
2.7.3. Deconvolution or inverse filtering ................. 70
2.8. Enhancements in the Seismic Reflection
Techniques ................................................ 74
3. Seismic Stratigraphic Techniques ........................... 111
3.1. Basic Seismic Observations ............................... 1ll
3.1.1. Sedimentary reflections ........................... 1ll
3.1.2. Unconformities .................................... 113
3.1.3. Non-sedimentary reflections ....................... 118
3.1.4. Artefacts and artificial reflections .............. 121
3.2. Reflection Termination Mapping ........................... 123
3.3. Seismic Facies Units ..................................... 125
3.3.1. Internal reflection configuration ................. 127
3.3.2. External geometry of seismic facies
units ............................................. 137
3.4. Geological Calibration and Well Control .................. 137
3.4.1. Petrophysical measurements and well
logging ........................................... 144
3.4.2. Well velocity surveys ............................. 161
3.4.3. Synthetic seismogram .............................. 166
3.4.4. Seismic phase rotation and
zerophasing ....................................... 173
3.4.5. Lithofacies calibration ........................... 178
3.4.6. Age-dating of depositional sequences .............. 178
3.5. Depositional Environment and Gross
Lithofacies Interpretation ............................... 181
3.5.1. Terrestrial shelf ................................. 182
3.5.2. Coastal or transitional domain .................... 194
3.5.3. Shallow marine shelf .............................. 198
3.5.4. Deeper marine slope and basinfloor ................ 203
3.5.5. Carbonate platform margin ......................... 218
3.5.6. Carbonate compensation depth and
oceanic basins .................................... 221
3.6. Chronostratigraphy ....................................... 229
3.6.1. Arbitrary stratigraphic chart ..................... 229
3.6.2. Chronostratigraphic chart ......................... 234
4. Dynamics of Basinwide Sedimentation Patterns
and Sealevel Changes ....................................... 235
4.1. Dynamics of Depositional Environments .................... 239
4.1.1. Passive continental margins ....................... 239
4.1.2. Carbonate platforms ............................... 242
4.1.3. Syn-sedimentary tectonic deformation .............. 254
4.2. Coastal Onlap Curves ..................................... 254
4.2.1. Relative changes in sealevel ...................... 254
4.2.2. Eustatic sealevel changes ......................... 258
4.2.3. Influence of regional tectonics ................... 262
4.3. The Link with Sequence Stratigraphy ...................... 268
5. Hydrocarbon Habitat ........................................ 281
5.1. Source Rocks and Hydrocarbon Migration ................... 283
5.1.1. Source rock types and maturity .................... 284
5.1.2. Depositional settings favouring
source rock development ........................... 287
5.1.3. Hydrocarbon migration and trapping ................ 292
5.1.4. HC plays and the Petroleum System
concept ........................................... 300
5.2. Structural Mapping and Interpretation .................... 309
5.2.1. Gridding and contouring ........................... 312
5.2.2. Geostatistical techniques ......................... 317
5.2.3. Depth conversion and depth contour
maps .............................................. 321
5.3. Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators ............................ 332
5.4. Amplitude and Attribute Anomalies ........................ 344
6. Seismic Reservoir Characterisation ......................... 355
6.1. Amplitude-Versus-Offset (AVO) ............................ 355
6.2. Angle-Dependent Reflectivity ............................. 368
6.2.1. Elastic Impedance Attribute ....................... 368
6.2.2. Relationship linearised Zoeppritz
approximation with some rock
physical parameters ............................... 369
6.3. Seismic Inversion Techniques ............................. 370
6.3.1. Post-stack inversion methods ...................... 370
6.3.2. Pre-stack inversion methods ....................... 388
6.3.3. Other techniques .................................. 399
6.3.4. A word of caution ................................. 401
6.4. Reservoir Modelling and Fluid Substitution ............... 401
6.4.1. Estimation of rock physical
parameters ........................................ 407
6.4.2. Estimation of elastic parameters .................. 408
6.4.3. Vp and Vs estimations ............................. 410
6.4.4. Fluid contents attributes ......................... 414
6.4.5. Constraints on modelling results .................. 415
6.5. Merging Seismics and Rock Physical
Parameters ............................................... 415
7. Volumetrics and Prospect Evaluation ........................ 419
7.1. Pressure Differentials ................................... 421
7.1.1. Pressure concepts ................................. 421
7.1.2. Pore pressure prediction .......................... 422
7.2. Quantitative Assessment .................................. 424
7.2.1. Quantified reservoir and trap
parameters ........................................ 424
7.2.2. Shared earth model ................................ 430
7.2.3. Additional factors ................................ 433
7.2.4. Safety issue ...................................... 434
7.3. Hydrocarbon Development and the Global
Economy .................................................. 435
7.3.1. Energy cost structure comparison .................. 437
7.3.2. Government taxation policies ...................... 441
7.3.3. Adaptation to a cyclic petroleum
market and future developments .................... 442
7.3.4. Outlook for the geophysical business
sector ............................................ 446
7.3.5. Benefits of increased recovery rates .............. 446
8. Concluding Remarks ......................................... 449
Acknowledgements .............................................. 451
Trademarks .................................................... 453
References .................................................... 455
Subject Index ................................................. 489
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