Preface to the Fourth Edition ................................... v
1. An Approach to Astrophysics ................................. 1
1.1. Channels for Astronomical Information ................. 3
1.2. X-Ray Astronomy. Development of a New Field ........... 5
1.3. The Appropriate Set of Physical Laws .................. 9
1.4. The Formation of Stars ............................... 10
1.5. The Hertzsprung-Russell and Color-Magnitude
Diagrams ............................................. 12
1.6. The Birth of Low-Mass Stars .......................... 15
1.7. Massive Stars ........................................ 18
1.8. The Late Stages of Stellar Evolution ................. 18
1.9. Abundance of the Chemical Elements in Stars and
the Solar System ..................................... 24
1.10. Origin of the Solar System ........................... 29
1.11. The Galaxy and the Local Group ....................... 36
1.12. The Formation of Large-Scale Structures .............. 38
1.13. Black Holes .......................................... 42
1.14. Magnetohydrodynamics and Turbulence .................. 43
1.15. Problems of Life ..................................... 44
1.16. Unobserved Astronomical Objects ...................... 45
2. The Cosmic Distance Scale .................................. 53
2.1. Size of the Solar System ............................. 53
2.2. Trigonometric Parallax ............................... 54
2.3. Spectroscopic Parallax ............................... 54
2.4. Superposition of Main Sequences ...................... 54
2.5. RR Lyrae Variables ................................... 56
2.6. Cepheid Variables .................................... 56
2.7. Novae and Ни Regions ................................. 57
2.8. Supernovae ........................................... 57
2.9. The Tully-Fisher and Faber-Jackson Relations ......... 57
2.10. Distance-Red-Shift Relation .......................... 58
2.11. Distances and Velocities ............................. 60
2.12. Seeliger's Theorem and Number Counts in Cosmology .... 60
Problems Dealing with the Size of Astronomical Objects ..... 63
Answers to Selected Problems ............................... 64
3. Dynamics and Masses of Astronomical Bodies ................. 67
3.1. Universal Gravitational Attraction ................... 67
3.2. Ellipses and Conic Sections .......................... 70
3.3. Central Force ........................................ 71
3.4. Two-Body Problem with Attractive Force ............... 72
3.5. Kepler's Laws ........................................ 73
3.6. Determination of the Gravitational Constant .......... 77
3.7. The Concept of Mass .................................. 80
3.8. Inertial Frames of Reference — The
Equivalence Principle ................................ 82
3.9. Gravitational Red Shift and Time Dilation ............ 83
3.10. Measures of Time ..................................... 84
3.11. Uses of Pulsar Time .................................. 86
3.12. Galactic Rotation .................................... 86
3.13. Scattering in an Inverse Square Law Field ............ 88
3.14. Stellar Drag ......................................... 90
3.15. Virial Theorem ....................................... 92
3.16. Stability Against Tidal Disruption ................... 94
3.17. Lagrangian Equations ................................. 96
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 102
4. Random Processes .......................................... 105
4.1. Random Events ....................................... 105
4.2. Random Walk ......................................... 106
4.3. Distribution Functions, Probabilities, and
Mean Values ......................................... 1ll
4.4. Projected Length of Randomly Oriented Rods .......... 112
4.5. The Motion of Molecules ............................. 115
4.6. Ideal Gas Law ....................................... 118
4.7. Radiation Kinetics .................................. 120
4.8. Isothermal Distributions ............................ 121
4.9. Atmospheric Density ................................. 122
4.10. Particle Energy Distribution in an Atmosphere ....... 123
4.11. Phase Space ......................................... 126
4.12. Angular Diameters of Stars .......................... 128
4.13. The Spectrum of Light Inside and Outside a Hot
Body ................................................ 129
4.14. Boltzmann Equation and Liouville's Theorem .......... 136
4.15. Fermi-Dirac Statistics .............................. 138
4.16. The Saha Equation ................................... 141
4.17. Mean Values ......................................... 142
4.18. Fluctuations ........................................ 143
4.19. The First Law of Thermodynamics ..................... 144
4.20. Isothermal and Adiabatic Processes .................. 146
4.21. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics ........ 147
4.22. Formation of Condensations and the Stability
of the Interstellar Medium .......................... 148
4.23. Ionized Gases and Clusters of Stars and Galaxies .... 150
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 154
5. Photons and Fast Particles ................................ 157
5.1. The Relativity Principle ............................ 157
5.2. Relativistic Terminology ............................ 158
5.3. Relative Motion ..................................... 162
5.4. Four-Vectors ........................................ 167
5.5. Aberration of Light ................................. 169
5.6. Momentum, Mass, and Energy .......................... 170
5.7. The Doppler Effect .................................. 173
5.8. Poynting-Robertson Drag on a Grain .................. 174
5.9. Motion Through the Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation ........................................... 175
5.10. Particles at High Energies .......................... 178
5.11. High-Energy Collisions .............................. 179
5.12. Superluminal Motions and Tachyons ................... 181
5.13. Strong Gravitational Fields ......................... 183
5.14. Gravitational Time Delay; Deflection of Light ....... 187
5.15. Gravitational Lenses ................................ 189
5.16. An Independent Measure of the Hubble Constant ....... 190
5.17. Orbital Motion Around a Black Hole .................. 191
5.18. Advance of the Perihelion of Mercury ................ 195
5.19. Accretion Disks Around X-ray Binaries ............... 196
5.20. The Smallest Conceivable Volume ..................... 198
5.21. The Zeroth Law of Black Hole Dynamics ............... 199
5.22. Entropy and Temperature of a Black Hole ............. 199
5.23. The Third Law of Black Hole Thermodynamics .......... 200
5.24. Radiating Black Holes ............................... 201
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 203
6. Electromagnetic Processes in Space ........................ 205
6.1. Coulomb's Law and Dielectric Displacement ........... 205
6.2. Cosmic Magnetic Fields .............................. 207
6.3. Ohm's Law and Dissipation ........................... 209
6.4. Magnetic Acceleration of Particles .................. 209
6.5. Ampere's Law and the Relation Between Cosmic
Currents and Magnetic Fields ........................ 211
6.6. Magnetic Mirrors, Magnetic Bottles, and
Cosmic-Ray Particles ................................ 211
6.7. Maxwell's Equations ................................. 214
6.8. The Wave Equation ................................... 215
6.9. Phase and Group Velocity ............................ 217
6.10. Energy Density, Pressure, and the Poynting Vector ... 218
6.11. Propagation of Waves Through a Tenuous Ionized
Medium .............................................. 220
6.12. Faraday Rotation .................................... 223
6.13. Light Emission by Slowly Moving Charges ............. 226
6.14. Gravitational Radiation ............................. 231
6.15. Light Scattering by Unbound Charges ................. 232
6.16. Scattering by Bound Charges ......................... 234
6.17. Extinction by Interstellar Grains ................... 236
6.18. Absorption and Emission of Radiation by a Plasma .... 237
6.19. Radiation from Thermal Radio Sources ................ 241
6.20. Synchrotron Radiation ............................... 244
6.21. The Synchrotron Radiation Spectrum .................. 246
6.22. The Compton Effect and Inverse Compton Effect ....... 250
6.23. The Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect ....................... 254
6.24. The Cherenkov Effect ................................ 255
6.25. The Angular Distribution of Light from the Sky ...... 257
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 260
7. Quantum Processes in Astrophysics ......................... 265
7.1. Absorption and Emission of Radiation by Atomic
Systems ............................................. 265
7.2. Quantization of Atomic Systems ...................... 266
7.3. Atomic Hydrogen and Hydrogenlike Spectra ............ 269
7.4. Spectra of Ionized Hydrogen ......................... 277
7.5. Hydrogen Molecules .................................. 278
7.6. Selection Rules ..................................... 281
7.7. The Information Contained in Spectral Lines ......... 285
7.8. Absorption and Emission Line Profile ................ 288
7.9. Quantum Mechanical Transition Probabilities ......... 290
7.10. Blackbody Radiation ................................. 296
7.11. Stimulated Emission and Cosmic Masers ............... 299
7.12. Stellar Opacity ..................................... 301
7.13. Chemical Composition of Stellar Atmospheres —
The Radiative Transfer Problem ...................... 304
7.14. A Gravitational Quantum Effect ..................... 308
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 309
8. Stars ..................................................... 313
8.1. Observations ........................................ 313
8.2. Sources of Stellar Energy ........................... 316
8.3. Requirements Imposed on Stellar Models .............. 318
8.4. Mathematical Formulation of the Theory .............. 319
8.5. Relaxation Times .................................... 321
8.6. Equation of State ................................... 324
8.7. Luminosity .......................................... 327
8.8. Opacity Inside a Star ............................... 328
8.9. Convective Transfer ................................. 333
8.10. Nuclear Reaction Rates .............................. 335
8.11. Particles and Basic Particle Interactions ........... 339
8.12. Energy-Generating Processes in Stars ................ 341
8.13. Compact Stars ....................................... 351
8.14 White Dwarf Stars ................................... 351
8.15. Stellar Evolution and The Hertzsprung-Russell
Diagram ............................................. 355
8.16. Supernovae, Neutron Stars, and Black Holes .......... 358
8.17. Pulsars, Magnetars, and Plerions .................... 364
8.18. Hypernovae and Gamma-Ray Bursts ..................... 365
8.19. Microquasars ........................................ 367
8.20. Vibration and Rotation of Stars ..................... 367
8.21. Solar Neutrino Observations ......................... 369
Additional Problems ....................................... 371
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 373
9. Cosmic Gas and Dust ....................................... 379
9.1. Observations ........................................ 379
9.2. Stromgren Spheres ................................... 390
9.3. Pressure Propagation and the Speed of Sound ......... 395
9.4. Shock Fronts and Ionization Fronts .................. 397
9.5. Gamma-Ray Bursts, GRB ............................... 404
9.6. Origin of Cosmic Magnetic Fields .................... 405
9.7. Dynamo Amplification of Magnetic Fields ............. 409
9.8. Cosmic-Ray Particles in the Interstellar Medium ..... 410
9.9. Formation of Molecules and Grains ................... 415
9.10 Formation of Molecular Hydrogen, H2 ................. 419
9.11. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons .................... 420
9.12. Infrared Emission from Galactic Sources ............. 421
9.13. Orientation of Interstellar Grains .................. 425
9.14. Acoustic Damping and The Barnett Effect ............. 429
9.15. Stability of Isothermal Gas Spheres ................. 430
9.16. Polytropes .......................................... 433
9.17. The Nature of Dark Matter ........................... 435
Additional Problems ....................................... 438
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 438
10. Formation of Stars and Planetary Systems ................. 441
10.1. Star Formation ...................................... 441
10.2. Gravitational Condensation of Matter ................ 443
10.3. Jeans Criterion ..................................... 444
10.4. Hydrostatics of Gaseous Clouds ...................... 446
10.5. Magnetic Reconnection ............................... 446
10.6. Ambipolar Diffusion ................................. 449
10.7. Triggered Collapse .................................. 450
10.8. Energy Dissipation .................................. 451
10.9. Cooling of Dense Clouds by Grain Radiation .......... 455
10.10.Condensation in the Early Solar Nebula .............. 458
10.11.The Evidence Provided by Meteorites ................. 462
10.12.Nascent Planetary Disks ............................. 467
10.13.Formation of Primitive Condensates in the Early
Solar Nebula ........................................ 469
10.14.Formation of Planetesimals .......................... 469
10.15.Condensation in the Primeval Solar Nebula ........... 471
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 473
11. The Universe We Inhabit ................................... 477
11.1. Questions About the Universe ........................ 477
11.2. Isotropy and Homogeneity of the Universe ............ 477
11.3. Cosmological Principle .............................. 480
11.4. Homogeneous Isotropic Models of the Universe ........ 481
11.5. Olbers's Paradox .................................... 485
11.6. Measuring the Geometric Properties of the
Universe ............................................ 487
11.7. Angular Diameters and Number Counts ................. 490
11.8. The Flux from Distant Supernovae .................... 492
11.9. Magnitudes and Angular Diameters of Galaxies ........ 495
11.10.Dynamics on a Cosmic Scale .......................... 496
11.11.Einstein's Field Equations .......................... 497
11.12.The Density Parameter Ω ............................ 497
11.13.Some Simple Models of the Universe .................. 500
11.14.Self-Regenerating Universes ......................... 505
11.15.Horizon of a Universe ............................... 506
11.16.Topology of the Universe ............................ 511
11.17.Do the Fundamental Constants of Nature Change
with Time? .......................................... 513
11.18.The Flow of Time .................................... 515
11.19.Branes and Compact Dimensions ....................... 517
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 519
12. An Astrophysical History of the Universe .................. 525
12.1. The Isotropy Problem ................................ 525
12.2. The Flatness Problem ................................ 527
12.3. Where Did the Microwave Background Radiation
Originate ........................................... 528
12.4. Looking Back in Time ................................ 530
12.5. The Planck Era ...................................... 531
12.6. Inflationary Cosmological Models .................... 532
12.7. The Post-Inflationary Stage ......................... 536
12.8. The Riemann Curvature Constant ...................... 537
12.9. Quark-Gluon Plasma .................................. 539
12.10.The Origin of Baryonic Mass ......................... 541
12.11.Leptons and Antileptons ............................. 543
12.12.The Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry ..................... 543
12.13.Early Element Formation ............................. 544
12.14.The Entropy of the Universe ......................... 546
12.15.A More Precise Extrapolation Back in Time ........... 548
12.16.The First 400,000 Years ............................. 549
12.17.Last Impact and Decoupling of Matter from
Radiation ........................................... 551
12.18 Observational Evidence .............................. 551
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 552
13. The Formation of Cosmic Structures ........................ 555
13.1. The Inhomogeneous Universe .......................... 555
13.2. Primordial Seeds .................................... 556
13.3. The Seeds of Structure .............................. 556
13.4 Evolution of Inhomogeneities ....................... 558
13.5. The Coupling of Radiation and Matter ................ 561
13.6 Cooling of Gas After Decoupling .................... 562
13.7. Photon Drag ......................................... 563
13.8. Oscillations Around the Decoupling Era .............. 565
13.9. The Jeans Criterion ................................. 569
13.10.Condensation on Superhorizon Scales ................. 571
13.11.A Swiss-Cheese Model ................................ 572
13.12.Birkhoff's Theorem and "Why Galaxies Don't
Expand" ............................................. 577
13.13.Curvature Fluctuations .............................. 578
13.14.Primordial Collapse and the Density Parameter Ω0 ... 581
13.15.Inhomogeneities in the Microwave Background
Radiation ........................................... 583
13.16.The Microwave Background Temperature Fluctuations ... 584
13.17.The Three-Dimensional Power Spectrum of Galaxies
and Clusters ........................................ 587
13.18.The Observed Imprint of Oscillations ................ 587
13.19.Oscillations and Fundamental Cosmological
Parameters ......................................... 589
13.20.The Rees-Sciama Effect .............................. 591
13.21.Formation of the Largest Structures ................. 592
13.22.Press-Schechter Condensation ........................ 593
13.23.The Internal Structure of Dark Matter haloes ........ 597
13.24.Protogalactic Cooling ............................... 597
13.25.Formation of the First Stars ........................ 598
13.26.Population III Stars ................................ 600
13.27 Reionization ........................................ 602
13.28.The Gunn-Peterson Effect ............................ 604
13.29.Quasar Stromgren Spheres ............................ 606
13.30.Formation of Supermassive Black Holes ............... 607
13.31.Accretion Disks Around Supermassive Black Holes ..... 607
13.32.The Masses of Galaxy Bulges and Central Black
Holes ............................................... 608
13.33.Growth Through Merging .............................. 609
13.34.Chemical Evolution of Galaxies and the
Intracluster Medium ................................. 610
13.35.Formation of Our Own Galaxy ......................... 611
13.36.Radioactive Dating .................................. 613
Answers to Selected Problems .............................. 613
14. Life in the Universe ...................................... 617
14.1. Introduction ........................................ 617
14.2. Thermodynamics of Biological Systems ................ 617
14.3. Organic Molecules in Nature and in the Laboratory ... 619
14.4. Origins of Life on Earth ............................ 622
14.5. The Chemical Basis of Terrestrial Life .............. 624
14.6. Laboratory Syntheses ................................ 626
14.7. Panspermia .......................................... 627
14.8. Higher Organisms and Intelligence ................... 627
14.9. Communication and Space Travel ...................... 627
Answer to a Selected Problem .............................. 630
A. Astronomical Terminology .................................. 633
В. Astrophysical Constants ................................... 665
Index ......................................................... 695
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