Chapter 1. Introduction ........................................ 1
1.1. Why Does 3D GIS Matter? ................................... 1
1.2. The Needs for 3D GIS ...................................... 3
1.3. The Need for 3D Spatial Data Modeling ..................... 7
1.4. Problems Associated with Spatial Modelling
for 3D GIS ................................................ 9
1.5. Previous Work ............................................ 10
1.6. Background to the 3D GIS Problem ......................... 13
Chapter 2. An. Overview of 3D GIS Development ................. 15
2.1. GIS Functions ............................................ 15
2.2. 3D GIS ................................................... 16
2.3. Recent Progress Made on 3D GIS ........................... 17
2.4. Commercially Available Systems and 3D GIS ................ 18
2.4.1. ArcView 3D Analyst ................................ 18
2.4.2. Imagine VirtualGIS ................................ 19
2.4.3. GeoMedia Terrain .................................. 20
2.4.4. PAMAP GIS Topographer ............................. 21
2.5. Why is 3D GIS Difficult to Realise? ...................... 22
2.6. Discussion ............................................... 23
Chapter 3. 2D and 3D Spatial Data Representations ............ 25
3.1. Introduction ............................................. 25
3.2. Classes of Object Representations ........................ 26
3.2.1. Grid .............................................. 26
3.2.2. Shape Model ....................................... 27
3.2.3. Facet Model ....................................... 28
3.2.4. Boundary Representation (B-rep) ................... 30
3.2.5. 3D Array .......................................... 32
3.2.6. Octree ............................................ 33
3.2.7. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) ................. 34
3.2.8. 3D TIN (Tetrahedral network, TEN) ................. 35
3.3. GIS Applicability of the Representations ................. 37
3.4. The Selection Criteria ................................... 38
3.4.1. Representation of Object Primitives ............... 38
3.4.2. Topology of Spatial Objects:
Simplexes and Complexes ........................... 40
3.5. Vector and Raster Representations ........................ 41
3.6. Summary .................................................. 42
Chapter 4. The Fundamentals of Geo-Spatial Modelling .......... 43
4.1. Spatial Data ............................................. 44
4.2. Spatial Data Modeling .................................... 44
4.3. Models and Their Importance for Geoinformation ........... 45
4.4. Components of Geo-spatial Model .......................... 47
4.5. Phases in Geo-spatial Modeling ........................... 48
4.6. Conceptual Design of a Geo-spatia\ Mode\ ................. 50
4.6.1. Definition of Space ............................... 51
4.6.3. Abstraction of Real World Object .................. 53
4.6.4. Object and Spatial Extent ......................... 57
4.6.5. Spatial Relations ................................. 57
4.6.6. Application of Spatial Relations .................. 62
4.6.7. Representation of Spatial Objects
and Relationships ................................. 65
4.6.8. Spatial Data Models in GIS ........................ 73
4.7. Logical Design of Geo-spatial Model ...................... 78
4.7.1. Relational Approach .............................. 79
4.7.2. Object-oriented Approach .......................... 81
4.8. Summary .................................................. 85
Chapter 5. The. Conceptual Design ............................. 87
5.1. TIN-based (2.5D) Data Model .............................. 87
5.2. Properties of the TIN-based Data Model ................... 90
5.3. TEN-based Data Model ..................................... 94
5.4. Generalized n-dimensional Integrated Data Model .......... 97
5.4.1. The Definitions ................................... 98
5.5. Single-theme and Multi-theme ............................ 101
5.6. Euler's Characteristics ................................. 102
5.6.1. Euler's Equality ................................. 103
5.6.2. The Generalized Euler Equality ................... 104
5.7. Discussion .............................................. 107
Chapter 6. The Logical Design ............................... 109
6.1. Relational Approach ..................................... 109
6.1.1. Relational Data Structure for
TIN-based Model .................................. 110
6.1.2. Relational Data Structure for
a TEN-based Model ................................ 112
6.1.3. Relational Data Structure
for an n-dimensional Data Model .................. 115
6.2. Object-oriented Approach ................................ 116
6.2.1. Object-oriented Definition of
a Spatial Object ................................. 117
6.2.2. Object-oriented Design Based on I DM ............. 118
6.2.3. Specialization of Classes ........................ 120
6.2.4. Aggregation of Objects ........................... 125
6.2.5. Creation of Objects .............................. 126
6.2.6. Behaviour of Objects in the Database ............. 128
6.2.7. Comparison with Other 00 Approaches .............. 129
6.3. Discussion .............................................. 130
Chapter 7. Object-Orientation of TINs Spatial Data .......... 133
7.1. Introduction ............................................ 133
7.2. Object-oriented Concepts ................................ 133
7.2.1. The Abstraction Mechanisms ....................... 134
7.2.2. The Programming Language ......................... 136
7.3. Object-oriented TIN Tessellations ....................... 136
7.3.1. Classes for 2D TIN Tessellations ................. 136
7.3.2. Classes for 3D TIN Tessellations ................. 140
7.4. Object-oriented TINs Spatial Data Modelling ............. 140
7.4.1. The Classes Schema ............................... 140
7.5. Object-oriented TIN Spatial Database
Development ............................................. 146
7.5.1. The POET OO DBMS ................................. 146
7.5.2. The POET Database Schema ......................... 147
7.5.3. The POET Database Browser ........................ 148
7.5.4. POET Database Query .............................. 148
7.6. Object-oriented TIN-based Subsystems
or GIS .................................................. 149
7.7. Summary ................................................. 150
Chapter 8. The Supporting Algorithms ......................... 153
8.1. Introduction ............................................ 153
8.2. Distance Transformation ................................. 153
8.3. Voronoi Tessellations ................................... 158
8.4. Triangulations (TINs).................................... 163
8.4.1. TIN Topological Data Structuring ................. 168
8.5. Visualization ........................................... 170
8.6. 3D Distance Transformation .............................. 171
8.7. 3D Voronoi Tessellation ................................. 176
8.8. Tetrahedron Network (TEN) Generation .................... 181
8.9. Constrained Triangulations .............................. 183
8.9.1. The Line Rasterization ........................... 183
8.9.2. The Construction of the
Constrained TINs ................................. 185
8.10.Contouring Algorithm .................................... 190
8.10.1.Data Structures for Contouring ................... 190
8.10.2.The Algorithm .................................... 192
8.10.3.The Contour Visualization ........................ 195
8.11.Algorithms for Irregular Network Formation .............. 196
8.12.Summary ................................................. 204
Chapter 9. Applications of the Model ......................... 207
9.1. Integration of Terrain Relief and
Terrain Features ........................................ 207
9.2. Creating an Integrated Database ......................... 209
9.3. A Spatial Query Example ................................. 212
9.4. Integrating with 3D Features ............................ 214
9.5. Integrating with Geo-scientific Data .................... 219
9.6. Spatial Operators ....................................... 221
9.7. Graphic Visualization ................................... 223
9.7.1. Wireframe Graphics ............................... 224
9.7.2. Hidden Line and Surface Removal .................. 225
9.7.3. Surface Shading and Illumination ................. 226
9.7.4. Texture Mapping .................................. 227
9.8. Virtual Reality ......................................... 230
9.9. Discussion .............................................. 230
Chapter 10. The Web and 3D GIS ............................... 233
10.1.Introduction ........................................... 233
10.2.Web 3D GIS .............................................. 234
10.3.Management of 3D Spatial Data ........................... 238
10.4.GUI for 3D Visualization and Editing
on the Web .............................................. 240
10.5.Current and Possible Approaches in
Urban Planning .......................................... 248
10.6.Realized Browser-based Solutions ........................ 249
10.7.Stand-alone Solutions/Toolkits/Front-ends ............... 254
10.8.Summary ................................................. 255
Chapter 11. Conclusion and Further Outlook ................... 257
11.1.Summary ................................................. 257
11.2.Further Research ........................................ 264
References and Bibliography .................................. 267
Index ........................................................ 287
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