Arnold K. Surface production operations: design of oil handling systems and facilities Vol.l / Arnold K., Stewart M. - 3rd ed. - Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2008. - xx, 722 p. - ISBN 978-0-7506-7853-7  Место хранения:   042 | Институт химии нефти СО РАН | Томск

Оглавление / Contents

Acknowledgments to the Third Edition About the Book ............................................... xxi Preface to the Third Edition ............................... xxiii 1 The Production Facility ....................................... 1 Introduction ................................................. 1 Making the Equipment Work ................................... 15 Facility Types .............................................. 18 2 Process Selection ............................................ 24 Introduction ................................................ 24 Controlling the Process ..................................... 24 Operation of a Control Valve ................................ 24 Pressure Control ............................................ 27 Level Control ............................................... 29 Temperature Control ......................................... 29 Flow Control ................................................ 29 Basic System Configuration .................................. 30 Wellhead and Manifold ....................................... 30 Separation .................................................. 30 Initial Separation Pressure ................................. 30 Stage Separation ............................................ 32 Selection of Stages ......................................... 34 Fields with Different Flowing Tubing Pressures .............. 34 Determining Separator Operating Pressures ................... 36 Two-Phase vs. Three-Phase Separators ........................ 37 Process Flowsheet ........................................... 37 Oil Treating and Storage .................................... 37 Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) ..................... 40 Pumps ....................................................... 44 Water Treating .............................................. 44 Compressors ................................................. 44 Gas Dehydration ............................................. 48 Well Testing ................................................ 50 Gas Lift .................................................... 53 Offshore Platform Considerations ............................ 56 Overview .................................................... 56 Modular Construction ........................................ 57 Equipment Arrangement ....................................... 57 3 Basic Principles ............................................ 61 Introduction ................................................ 61 Basic Oil-Field Chemistry ................................... 61 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures ........................... 61 Atomic and Molecular Weights ................................ 62 Hydrocarbon Nomenclature .................................... 63 Paraffin Series: (CnH2n+2) .................................. 64 Paraffin Compounds .......................................... 64 Acids and Bases ............................................. 65 Fluid Analysis .............................................. 65 Physical Properties ......................................... 65 Molecular Weight and Apparent Molecular Weight .............. 68 Example 3-1: Molecular weight calculation ................ 69 Example 3-2: Determine the apparent molecular weight of dry air, which is a gas mixture consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, and small amounts of Argon .......... 69 Gas Specific Gravity and Density ......................... 70 Example 3-3: Calculate the specific gravity of a natural gas with the following composition .............. 71 Nonideal Gas Equations of State ............................. 73 Reduced Properties .......................................... 80 Example 3-4: Calculate the pseudo-critical temperature and pressure for the following natural gas stream composition .... 81 Example 3-5: Calculate the volume of 1 lb mole of the natural gas stream given in the previous example at 120° F and 1500 psia ................................... 82 Example 3-6: A sour natural gas has the following composition. Determine the compressibility factor for the gas at 100° F and 1000 psia ........................ 88 Liquid Density and Specific Gravity ......................... 89 Viscosity ................................................... 92 Gas Viscosity ............................................... 93 Liquid Viscosity ............................................ 94 Oil-Water Mixture Viscosity ................................. 95 Phase Behavior .............................................. 97 System Components ........................................... 98 Single-Component Systems .................................... 99 Multicomponent Systems ..................................... 101 Lean Gas Systems ........................................... 103 Rich Gas Systems ........................................... 103 Retrograde Systems ......................................... 104 Application of Phase Envelopes ............................. 105 Black Oil Reservoir ........................................ 106 Phase Diagram Characteristics .............................. 106 Field Characteristics ...................................... 106 Laboratory Analysis ........................................ 107 Volatile Oil Reservoir ..................................... 107 Phase Diagram Characteristics .............................. 107 Field Characteristics ...................................... 108 Laboratory Analysis ........................................ 109 Retrograde Gas Reservoir ................................... 109 Phase Diagram Characteristics .............................. 109 Field Characteristics ...................................... 110 Laboratory Analysis ........................................ 110 Wet Gas Reservoir .......................................... 110 Phase Diagram Characteristics .............................. 110 Field Characteristics ...................................... 111 Dry Gas Reservoir .......................................... 112 Phase Diagram Characteristics .............................. 112 Information Required for Design ............................ 112 Flash Calculations ......................................... 113 Characterizing the Flow Stream ............................. 130 Molecular Weight of Gas .................................... 130 Gas Flow Rate .............................................. 130 Liquid Molecular Weight .................................... 132 Specific Gravity of Liquid ................................. 133 Liquid Flow Rate ........................................... 134 The Flow Stream ............................................ 135 Approximate Flash Calculations ............................. 136 Other Properties ........................................... 137 Exercises .................................................. 142 References ................................................. 149 4 Two-Phase Oil and Gas Separation ........................... 150 Introduction ............................................... 150 Phase Equilibrium .......................................... 151 Factors Affecting Separation ............................... 152 Functional Sections of a Gas-Liquid Separator .............. 152 Inlet Diverter Section ..................................... 154 Liquid Collection Section .................................. 154 Gravity Settling Section ................................... 154 Mist Extractor Section ..................................... 154 Equipment Description ...................................... 155 Horizontal Separators ...................................... 155 Vertical Separators ........................................ 156 Spherical Separators ....................................... 157 Centrifugal Separators ..................................... 159 Venturi Separators ......................................... 160 Double-Barrel Horizontal Separators ........................ 161 Horizontal Separator with a "Boot" or "Water Pot" .......... 162 Filter Separators .......................................... 163 Scrubbers .................................................. 164 Slug Catchers .............................................. 165 Selection Considerations ................................... 165 Vessel Internals ........................................... 169 Inlet Diverters ............................................ 169 Wave Breakers .............................................. 170 Defoaming Plates ........................................... 171 Vortex Breaker ............................................. 173 Stilling Well .............................................. 173 Sand Jets and Drains ....................................... 175 Mist Extractors ............................................ 176 Introduction ............................................... 176 Gravitational and Drag Forces Acting on a Droplet .......... 176 Impingement-Type ........................................... 177 Baffles .................................................... 178 Wire-Mesh .................................................. 181 Micro-Fiber ................................................ 186 Other Configurations ....................................... 187 Final Selection ............................................ 187 Potential Operating Problems ............................... 190 Foamy Crude ................................................ 190 Paraffin ................................................... 192 Sand ....................................................... 192 Liquid Carryover ........................................... 192 Gas Blowby ................................................. 193 Liquid Slugs ............................................... 194 Design Theory .............................................. 195 Settling ................................................... 195 Droplet Size ............................................... 203 Retention Time ............................................. 203 Liquid Re-entrainment ...................................... 204 Separator Design ........................................... 204 Horizontal Separators Sizing—Half Full ..................... 204 Gas Capacity Constraint .................................... 205 Liquid Capacity Constraint ............................... 209 Seam-to-Seam Length ........................................ 211 Slenderness Ratio .......................................... 212 Procedure for Sizing Horizontal Separators—Half Full ....... 212 Horizontal Separators Sizing Other Than Half Full .......... 213 Gas Capacity Constraint .................................... 214 Liquid Capacity Constraint ................................. 215 Vertical Separators' Sizing ................................ 219 Gas Capacity Constraint .................................... 219 Liquid Capacity Constraint ................................. 222 Seam-to-Seam Length ........................................ 224 Slenderness Ratio .......................................... 226 Procedure for Sizing Vertical Separators ................... 226 Examples ................................................... 226 Example 4-1: Sizing a Vertical Separator (Field Units) .............................. 226 Example 4-2: Sizing a Vertical Separator (SI Units) ................................. 229 Example 4-3: Sizing a Horizontal Separator (Field Units) .............................. 232 Example 4-4: Sizing a Horizontal Separator (SI Units) ................................. 233 Nomenclature ............................................... 234 Review Questions ........................................... 236 Exercises .................................................. 239 Bibliography ............................................... 243 5 Three-Phase Oil and Water Separation ....................... 244 Introduction ............................................... 244 Equipment Description ...................................... 246 Horizontal Separators ...................................... 246 Derivation of Equation (5-1) ............................... 250 Free-Water Knockout ........................................ 251 Flow Splitter .............................................. 252 Horizontal Three-Phase Separator with a Liquid "Boot" ...... 253 Vertical Separators ........................................ 255 Selection Considerations ................................... 258 Vessel Internals ........................................... 259 Coalescing Plates .......................................... 260 Turbulent Flow Coalescers .................................. 260 Potential Operating Problems ............................... 261 Emulsions .................................................. 261 Design Theory .............................................. 261 Gas Separation ............................................. 261 Oil-Water Settling ......................................... 262 Water Droplet Size in Oil .................................. 262 Oil Droplet Size in Water .................................. 262 Retention Time ............................................. 264 Separator Design ........................................... 265 Horizontal Separators Sizing—Half-Full ..................... 265 Gas Capacity Constraint 265 Retention Time Constraint ...... 266 Derivation of Equations (5-4a) and (5-4b) .................. 267 Settling Water Droplets from Oil Phase ..................... 270 Derivation of Equations (5-5a) and (5-5b) .................. 270 Derivation of Equation (5-7) ............................... 273 Separating Oil Droplets from Water Phase ................... 274 Seam-to-Seam Length ........................................ 274 Slenderness Ratio .......................................... 275 Procedure for Sizing Three-Phase Horizontal Separators—Half-Full ....................................... 275 Horizontal Separators Sizing Other Than Half-Full Gas Capacity Constraint ................................. 278 Retention Time Constraint .................................. 279 Settling Equation Constraint ............................... 283 Vertical Separators' Sizing ................................ 283 Gas Capacity Constraint .................................... 284 Settling Water Droplets from Oil Phase ..................... 284 Derivation of Equations (5-2la) and (5-2lb) ................ 285 Settling Oil from Water Phase .............................. 287 Retention Time Constraint .................................. 287 Derivation of Equations (5-24a) and (5-24b) ................ 288 Seam-to-Seam Length ........................................ 289 Slenderness Ratio .......................................... 290 Procedure for Sizing Three-Phase Vertical Separators Examples ................................................... 294 Example 5-1: Sizing a vertical three-phase separator (field units) .............................. 294 Example 5-2: Sizing a vertical three-phase separator (SI units) ....................... 297 Example 5-3: Sizing a horizontal three-phase separator (field units) .................... 299 Example 5-4: Sizing a horizontal three-phase separator (SI units) ....................... 302 Nomenclature ............................................... 305 Review Questions ........................................... 308 Exercises .................................................. 310 6 Mechanical Design of Pressure Vessels ...................... 316 Introduction ............................................... 316 Design Considerations ...................................... 317 Design Temperature ......................................... 317 Design Pressure ............................................ 317 Maximum Allowable Stress Values ............................ 319 Determining Wall Thickness ................................. 320 Corrosion Allowance ........................................ 324 Inspection Procedures ...................................... 327 Estimating Vessel Weights .................................. 329 Specification and Design of Pressure Vessels ............... 331 Pressure Vessel Specifications ............................. 331 Shop Drawings .............................................. 331 Nozzles .................................................... 334 Vortex Breaker ............................................. 334 Manways .................................................... 339 Vessel Supports ............................................ 339 Ladder and Platform ........................................ 341 Pressure Relief Devices .................................... 342 Corrosion Protection ....................................... 342 Example 6-1: Determining the weight of an FWKO vessel (field units) .............................. 342 Review Questions ........................................... 346 Exercises .................................................. 348 Reference .................................................. 350 7 Crude Oil Treating and Oil Desalting Systems Introduction ............................................... 351 Equipment Description ...................................... 351 Free-Water Knockouts ....................................... 351 Gunbarrel Tanks with Internal and External Gas Boots ....... 352 Example 7.1: Determination of external water leg height ................................. 354 Horizontal Flow Treaters ................................... 359 Heaters .................................................... 360 Indirect Fired Heaters ..................................... 361 Direct Fired Heaters ....................................... 362 Waste Heat Recovery ........................................ 363 Heater Sizing .............................................. 363 Heater-Treaters ............................................ 363 Vertical Heater-Treaters ................................... 363 Coalescing Media ........................................... 367 Horizontal Heater-Treaters ................................. 368 Electrostatic Heater-Treaters .............................. 377 Oil Dehydrators ............................................ 382 Heater-Treater Sizing ...................................... 383 Emulsion Treating Theory ................................... 383 Introduction ............................................... 383 Emulsions .................................................. 384 Differential Density ....................................... 385 Size of Water Droplets ..................................... 386 Viscosity .................................................. 386 Interfacial Tension ........................................ 386 Presence and Concentration of Emulsifying Agents ........... 387 Water Salinity ............................................. 387 Age of the Emulsion ........................................ 387 Agitation .................................................. 388 Emulsifying Agents ......................................... 388 DemuLsifiers ............................................... 392 Bottle Test ................................................ 393 Field Trial ................................................ 394 Field Optimization ......................................... 395 Changing the Demulsifier ................................... 395 Demulsifier Troubleshooting ................................ 395 Emulsion Treating Methods .................................. 396 General Considerations ..................................... 396 Chemical Addition .......................................... 397 Amount of Chemical ......................................... 397 Bottle Test Considerations ................................. 398 Water Drop-Out Rate ........................................ 398 Sludge ..................................................... 398 Interface .................................................. 398 Water Turbidity ............................................ 398 Oil Color .................................................. 399 Centrifuge Results ......................................... 399 Chemical Selection ......................................... 399 Settling Tank or "Gunbarrel" ............................... 399 Vertical Heater-Treater .................................... 399 Horizontal Heater-Treater .................................. 400 Settling Time .............................................. 400 Coalescence ................................................ 401 Viscosity .................................................. 402 Heat Effects ............................................... 403 Electrostatic Coalescers ................................... 410 Water Droplet Size and Retention Time ...................... 412 Treater Equipment Sizing ................................... 413 General Considerations ..................................... 413 Heat Input Required ........................................ 413 Derivation of Equations (7-5a) and (7-5b) .................. 414 Gravity Separation Considerations .......................... 415 Settling Equations ......................................... 416 Horizontal Vessels ......................................... 417 Derivation of Equations (7-8a) and (7-8b) .................. 417 Vertical Vessels ........................................... 418 Gun barrels ................................................ 419 Horizontal Flow Treaters ................................... 419 Derivation of Equations (7-10a) and (7-10b) and (7-1 la) and (7-1 lb) ...................................... 421 Retention Time Equations ................................... 422 Horizontal Vessels ......................................... 422 Vertical Vessels ........................................... 422 Gun barrels ................................................ 423 Horizontal Flow Treaters ................................... 423 Derivation of Equations (7-12a) and (7-12b) ................ 424 Water Droplet Size ......................................... 425 Design Procedure ........................................... 428 General Design Procedure ................................... 428 Design Procedure for Vertical Heater-Treaters and Gun barrels (Wash Tanks with Internal/External Gas Boot) ............................................... 428 Design Procedure for Horizontal Heater-Treaters ............ 429 Design Procedure for Horizontal-Flow Treaters .............. 429 Examples ................................................... 432 Example 7-2: Sizing a horizontal treater (field units) .............................. 432 Example 7-3: Sizing a horizontal treater (SI units) ..... 434 Example 7-4: Sizing a vertical treater (field units) .... 436 Example 7-5: Sizing a vertical treater (SI units) ....... 437 Practical Considerations ................................... 439 Gunbarrels with Internal/External Gas Boot ................. 439 Heater-Treaters ............................................ 440 Electrostatic Heater-Treaters .............................. 440 Oil Desalting Systems ...................................... 440 Introduction ............................................... 440 Equipment Description ...................................... 441 Desalters .................................................. 441 Mixing Equipment ........................................... 441 Globe Valves ............................................... 441 Spray Nozzles .............................................. 442 Static Mixers .............................................. 443 Process Description ........................................ 444 Single-Stage Desalting ..................................... 444 Two-Stage Desalting ........................................ 445 Nomenclature ............................................... 446 Review Questions ........................................... 447 Exercises .................................................. 451 Reference .................................................. 456 8 Crude Stabilization ........................................ 457 Introduction ............................................... 457 Basic Principles ........................................... 458 Phase-Equilibrium Considerations ........................... 458 Flash Calculations ......................................... 460 Process Schemes ............................................ 460 Multi-Stage Separation ..................................... 460 Oil Heater-Treaters ........................................ 460 Liquid Hydrocarbon Stabilizer .............................. 461 Cold-Feed Stabilizer ....................................... 464 Stabilizer with Reflux ..................................... 466 Equipment Description ...................................... 467 Stabilizer Tower ........................................... 467 Trays and Packing .......................................... 469 Trays ...................................................... 469 Packing .................................................... 472 Trays or Packing ........................................... 474 Stabilizer Reboiler ........................................ 475 Stabilizer Cooler .......................................... 476 Stabilizer Reflux System ................................... 476 Stabilizer Feed Cooler ..................................... 477 Stabilizer-Heater .......................................... 477 Stabilizer Design .......................................... 477 Stabilizer As a Gas-Processing Plant ....................... 481 9 Produced Water Treating Systems ............................ 482 Introduction ............................................... 482 Disposal Standards ......................................... 483 Offshore Operations ........................................ 483 Onshore Operations ......................................... 484 Characteristics of Produced Water .......................... 484 Dissolved Solids 484 Precipitated Solids (Scales) .......... 485 Calcium Carbonate (СаСОэ) .................................. 485 Calcium Sulfate (CaS04) .................................... 485 Iron Sulfide (FeS2) ........................................ 486 Barium and Strontium Sulfate (BaS04 and SrS04) ............. 486 Scale Removal .............................................. 486 Controlling Scale Using Chemical Inhibitors ................ 487 Sand and Other Suspended Solids ............................ 487 Dissolved Gases ............................................ 488 Oil in Water Emulsions ..................................... 489 Dissolved Oil Concentrations ............................... 490 Dispersed Oil .............................................. 491 Toxicants .................................................. 494 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials .................. 496 Bacteria ................................................... 497 System Description ......................................... 499 Theory ..................................................... 500 Gravity Separation ......................................... 501 Coalescence ................................................ 502 Dispersion ................................................. 503 Flotation .................................................. 504 Filtration ................................................. 507 Equipment Description and Sizing ........................... 508 Skim Tanks and Skim Vessels ................................ 508 Configurations ............................................. 509 Vertical ................................................... 509 Horizontal ................................................. 510 Pressure Versus Atmospheric Vessels ........................ 511 Retention Time 511 Performance Considerations .............. 512 Skimmer Sizing Equations ................................... 514 Horizontal Cylindrical Vessel: Half-Full ................... 514 Derivation of Equation (9-7) ............................... 514 Horizontal Rectangular Cross-Section Skimmer ............... 517 Derivation of Equation (9-12) .............................. 518 Derivation of Equation (9-13) .............................. 520 Vertical Cylindrical Skimmer ............................... 521 Derivation of Equation (9-15) .............................. 522 Derivation of Equation (9-17) .............................. 523 Coalescers ................................................. 524 Plate Coalescers ........................................... 524 Parallel Plate Interceptor (PPI) ........................... 526 Corrugated Plate Interceptor (CPI) ......................... 526 Cross-Flow Devices ......................................... 530 Performance Considerations ................................. 532 Selection Criteria ......................................... 534 Coalescer Sizing Equations ................................. 536 Derivation of Equation (9-18) .............................. 537 Derivation of Equation (9-19) .............................. 539 CPI Sizing ................................................. 540 Cross-Flow Device Sizing ................................... 541 Example 9-1: Determining the dispersed oil content in the effluent water from a CPI plate separator ........... 542 Oil/Water/Sediment Coalescing Separators ................... 543 Oil/Water/Sediment Sizing .................................. 545 Performance Considerations ................................. 546 Skimmer/Coalescers ......................................... 546 Matrix Type ................................................ 547 Loose Media ................................................ 547 Performance Considerations ................................. 548 Precipitators/Coalescing Filters ........................... 549 Free-Flow Turbulent Coalescers ............................. 551 Performance Considerations ................................. 555 Flotation Units ............................................ 555 Dissolved Gas Units ........................................ 556 Dispersed Gas Units ........................................ 559 Hydraulic Induced Units .................................... 562 Mechanical Induced Units ................................... 563 Other Configurations ....................................... 565 Sizing Dispersed Gas Units ................................. 566 Performance Considerations ................................. 568 Hydrocyclones .............................................. 573 General Considerations ..................................... 573 Operating Principles ....................................... 573 Static Hydrocyclones ....................................... 575 Dynamic Hydrocyclones ...................................... 578 Selection Criteria and Application Guidelines .............. 578 Sizing and Design .......................................... 580 Disposal Piles ............................................. 580 Disposal Pile Sizing ....................................... 582 Derivation of Equation (9-26) .............................. 583 Derivation of Equation (9-27) .............................. 585 Skim Piles 585 Skim Pile Sizing ............................ 588 Derivation of Equation (9-28) .............................. 588 Drain Systems .............................................. 589 Information Required for Design ............................ 590 Effluent Quality ........................................... 590 Influent Water Quality ..................................... 591 Produced Water ............................................. 591 Soluble Oil ................................................ 592 Deck Drainage .............................................. 592 Equipment Selection Procedure .............................. 592 Equipment Specification .................................... 594 Skim Tank .................................................. 594 SP Pack System ............................................. 595 CPI Separator .............................................. 595 Cross-Flow Devices ......................................... 595 Flotation Cell ............................................. 595 Disposal Pile .............................................. 595 Example 9-2: Design the produced water treating system for the data given ...................................... 595 Nomenclature ............................................... 606 Review Questions ........................................... 607 References ................................................. 609 10 Water Injection Systems .................................... 610 Introduction ............................................... 610 Solids Removal Theory ...................................... 612 Removal of Suspended Solids from Water ..................... 612 Gravity Settling ........................................... 612 Flotation Units ............................................ 615 Filtration ................................................. 615 Inertial Impaction ......................................... 615 Diffusional Interception ................................... 616 Direct Interception ........................................ 617 Filter Types ............................................... 618 Nonfixed-Pore Structure Media .............................. 618 Fixed-Pore Structure Media ................................. 619 Surface Media .............................................. 620 Summary of Filter Types .................................... 620 Removal Ratings ............................................ 621 Nominal Rating ............................................. 621 Absolute Rating ............................................ 622 Beta (β) Rating System ..................................... 623 Choosing the Proper Filter ................................. 624 Nature of Fluid ............................................ 624 Flow Rate .................................................. 625 Temperature ................................................ 625 Pressure Drop .............................................. 625 Surface Area ............................................... 627 Void Volume ................................................ 628 Degree of Filtration ....................................... 629 Prefiltration .............................................. 629 Coagulants and Flocculation ................................ 630 Measuring Water Compatibility .............................. 631 Solids Removal Equipment Description ....................... 632 Gravity Settling Tanks ..................................... 636 Horizontal Cylindrical Gravity Settlers .................... 639 Horizontal Rectangular Cross-Sectional Gravity Settlers .... 641 Vertical Cylindrical Gravity Settlers ...................... 643 Plate Coalescers ........................................... 644 Hydrocyclones .............................................. 644 Centrifuges ................................................ 648 Flotation Units ............................................ 648 Disposable Cartridge Filters ............................... 649 Backwashable Cartridge Filters ............................. 651 Granular Media Filters ..................................... 652 Diatomaceous Earth Filters ................................. 660 Chemical Scavenging Equipment .............................. 663 Nomenclature ............................................... 665 Appendix A: Definition of Key Water Treating Terms ......... 667 Appendix B: Water Sampling Techniques ...................... 672 Appendix C: Oil Concentration Analysis Techniques .......... 676 Glossary of Terms .......................................... 682 Index ...................................................... 701