Preface ......................................................... V
Abbreviations and Technical Remarks ............................. X
Introduction .................................................... 1
1 The Evolution of Plant Stems in the Earth's History
The Landscape in the Paleozoic ................................ 4
Plant Body of Vascular Plants ................................. 6
The Evolution of a Stabilizator) System ....................... 8
The Contemporary Fossil Psilotum Nudum? ....................... 9
Diversification of Plants Containing Tracheids
The Lycopods .............................................. 10
The Horsetails ............................................ 11
The Fossil and Contamporary Ferns ......................... 12
Contemporary Ferns ........................................ 14
Trees Grow Taller and Bigger ................................. 16
Successful Seed Plants with Naked Seeds
Ginkgos and Cycads ........................................ 18
Gnetophytes (Ephedra, Gnetum and Welwitschia) ................ 20
The Most Successful Seed Plants with Naked Seeds:
Conifers .................................................. 22
Successful Plants with Seeds Enclosed in a Carpel:
Angiospermae .............................................. 24
Systematic of Plant Life ..................................... 26
2 The Structure of the Plant Body
Life Forms in Different Vegetation Zones ..................... 28
Principal Growth Forms of Stems .............................. 30
Principal Construction of Roots and Shoots ................... 32
Principal Construction of the Xylem and Phloem
Cell Types, Cell Walls and Cell Contents .................. 34
3 Secondary Growth: Advantages and Risks
Primary and Secondary Growth ................................. 40
Principle Structure of Plants with Secondary Growth .......... 42
Physiological Ageing in Plants with Secondary Growth ......... 43
The Risks of Water Transport:
Stabilized and Permeable Cell Walls ....................... 44
The Risks of Stem Thickening:
Dilatation and Phellem Formation .......................... 46
The Risks of Over-Production: Programmed Cell Death ....... 50
The Risks of Instability:
Eccentricity .............................................. 52
Reaction Wood ............................................. 54
Formation of Lignin and Thick Cell Walls .................. 56
Internal Optimization ........................................ 58
The Risk of Decomposition:
Natural Boundaries and Protection Systems ................. 60
Defence Barriers Around Wounds ............................... 62
The Risk of Shedding Plant Parts: Abscission ................. 64
4 Modification of the Stem Structure
The Primary Stage of Growth:
The Construction of Vascular Bundles ...................... 70
The Arrangement of Vascular Bundles in Mosses,
Lycopods and Ferns ........................................ 72
The Arrangement of Vascular Bundles in Conifer
and Dicotyledonous Plant Shoots ........................... 74
The Secondary Stage of Growth:
Conifer Xylem ............................................. 76
The Xylem of Dicotyledonous Angiosperms ................... 78
The Primary and Secondary Stages of Growth of
Monocotyledons:
Macroscopic View .......................................... 82
Microscopic View .......................................... 84
The Secondary Stage of Growth:
Conifer Phloem ............................................ 86
The Phloem of Dicotyledonous Angiosperms .................. 88
Cambial Growth Variants and Successive Cambia ............. 90
The Third Stage oi Growth:
The Periderm .............................................. 92
5 Modification of the Xylem Within a Plant
Modification of the Xylem Within a Plant Conifer:
Root, Twig and Stem ....................................... 96
Deciduous Tree:
Root, Twig and Stem ....................................... 98
From Root to Stem Structure ............................... 99
Modification by Aging:
Changing Growth Forms .................................... 100
Changing Growth and Leaf Forms ........................... 101
Changing Wood Anatomical Structures ...................... 102
Change of Phloem and Periderm Structures .................... 104
6 Modification of the Xylem and Phloem by Ecological Factors
Intra-Annual Density Fluctuations, Phenolic and
Crystal Deposits ............................................ 108
Intra-Annual Cell Collapse, Callous Tissue and Ducts ........ 110
Interannual Variation of Latewood Zones ..................... 112
Long Term Variations: Sudden Growth Changes ................. 113
Inter- and Intra-Annual Variations of the Phloem ............ 114
7 Modification of Organs
Modification of Shoots: Long and Short Shoots ............... 118
Shedding Needles, Male and Female Flowers ................ 121
Thorns and Spines ........................................ 122
Vertical, Horizontal and Drooping Twigs .................. 124
Latent and Adventitious Shoots ........................... 126
The Lateral Modification of Stems ........................... 128
8 Anatomical Plasticity
Wood Structural Variability
In Different Families .................................... 132
In Different Growth Forms ................................ 134
Under Different Site Conditions .......................... 136
Modification Caused by Different Shoot and Root
Functions ................................................... 140
9 Modifications Caused by Weather and Climate
Major Wood Anatomical Types in Different Climatic
Regions ..................................................... 144
Modification of the Annual Tree-Ring Formation Caused
By Seasonal Climatic Changes ................................ 148
Modification of the Annual Tree-Ring Formation Caused
By Seasonal Climatic Changes: The Genetic Component ......... 150
Modification of the Xylem due to Intra-Seasonal
Variations: Ecological, Climatic and Individual
Compontents ................................................. 152
10 Modifications Caused by Extreme Events Lack of Light ....... 154
Severe Frost ................................................ 158
Drought and Drainage ........................................ 160
Defoliation by Insects ...................................... 162
Defoliation Caused by Chemical Pollution and
Nuclear Radiation ........................................... 164
Crown Destruction due to Grazing ............................ 166
Crown Destruction Caused by Pruning and Pollarding .......... 168
The Felling of Stems ........................................ 170
Growing Together: Anastomosis ............................... 172
Crown, Stem and Site Destruction by Forest Fires ............ 174
Crown and Stem Destruction by Parasites and Pathogens ....... 178
Mechanical Stress on Stems due to Imbalance and Shock ....... 180
Physiological Stress Caused by Stem Wounds .................. 184
11 From Anatomical Features to Plant Structures
How do Woody Plants Get Old? ................................ 188
How Large Can Trees Get? .................................... 190
The Structural Diversity of Woody Plants .................... 192
Protection Against Environmental Extremes
Temperature Extremes ..................................... 195
Avoiding Shade ........................................... 197
Storage of Reserves in Seasonal Climates 198
Other Special Ecological Adaptations
Herbivory and Ant Plants ................................. 199
Mangroves and Flooding ................................... 200
Mistletoes ............................................... 201
Phyllods, Phy Hoc lades, Green Woody Stems ............... 202
12 Decay of Dead Wood
Insects ..................................................... 204
Fungi ....................................................... 206
Carbonization ............................................... 208
Petrification ............................................... 210
Compression ................................................. 212
13 Microscopical Preparation Collection and Storing
of Material and Preparation for Sectioning ............ 216
Making Thin Sections ........................................ 216
Preparation of Thin Sections for Permanent Slides ........... 217
Observation and Photography ................................. 217
References .................................................... 219
List of Species ............................................... 221
Subject Index ................................................. 227
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