SECTION I Emulsions
Foreword ....................................................... xi
Preface ...................................................... xiii
Introduction ................................................... xv
List of Contributors .......................................... xix
Part I Fossil Fuel and Nuclear Energy .......................... 1
1. The Future of Oil and Gas Fossil Fuels ...................... 3
A.R.H. Goodwin
1. Introduction ............................................. 3
2. Hydrocarbon Reservoirs ................................... 4
3. Hydrocarbon Recovery, Reserves, Production and
Consumption ............................................. 11
4. Global Warming, Alternative Energy and C02
Sequestration ........................................... 17
5. Conclusion .............................................. 19
References ..................................................... 19
2. The Future of Clean Coal ................................... 25
M. Balat
1. Introduction ............................................ 25
2. Coal and Environmental Problems ......................... 28
3. Clean Coal Technologies ................................. 30
4. Costs and Plant Characteristics for Coal-fired
Power Plants with Capture of CO2 ........................ 36
5. Conclusion .............................................. 36
References ..................................................... 37
3. Nuclear Power (Fission) .................................... 41
S. Green and D. Kennedy
1. Introduction ............................................ 41
2. Cost-Benefit Analysis for 2007 Energy White Paper ....... 41
3. Other Recent Studies on Nuclear Generation Costs ........ 47
4. Global Prospects for Nuclear Power ...................... 54
5. Conclusions ............................................. 56
References ..................................................... 56
4. The Alberta Oil Sands: Reserves and Supply Outlook ......... 59
F. Rahnama, K. Elliott, R.A. Marsh and L. Philp
1. Introduction ............................................ 59
2. Bitumen Reserves in Alberta ............................. 61
3. Reserves Under Active Development ....................... 63
4. Bitumen Recovery Techniques ............................. 65
5. Short-term Bitumen Supply in Alberta .................... 67
6. Long-term Bitumen Supply in Alberta ..................... 70
7. Supply Costs of Bitumen Production in Alberta ........... 72
8. Conclusion .............................................. 74
References ..................................................... 75
5. The Future of Methane and Coal to Petrol
and Diesel Technologies ................................... 77
A.C. Vosloo
1. Brief Description of the Methane and Coal to Petrol
and Diesel Technologies ................................. 77
2. Factors that will Influence the Future Demand
for CTL and GTL Technologies ............................ 84
3. Environmental Factors that will Influence the
Application of CTL and GTL Technologies ................. 88
4. Future Developments to Reduce the Capital and
Operating Costs of CTL and GTL Plants ................... 89
5. Conclusions ............................................. 89
References ..................................................... 90
Part II Renewable Energy ....................................... 93
6. Wind Energy ................................................ 95
L. Staudt
1. History and Present Status .............................. 95
2. Technical Issues ........................................ 97
3. Commercial Issues ...................................... 104
4. Environmental Issues ................................... 106
5. Conclusions ............................................ 110
References ................................................ 110
Recommended Websites ...................................... 110
7. Tidal Current Energy: Origins and Challenges .............. 111
A. Owen
1. Introduction ........................................... 111
2. Tidal Current Drivers .................................. 112
3. Devices ................................................ 120
4. Anchors and Fixings .................................... 122
5. Biofouling ............................................. 126
6. Conclusion ............................................. 127
References .................................................... 127
Further Reading ............................................... 128
8. Wave Energy ............................................... 129
R. Alcorn and T. Lewis
1. Background, Context and Drivers of Wave Energy ......... 129
2. What is Ocean Wave Energy? ............................. 130
3. The Energy Resource and How it is Measured ............. 133
4. Forecasting and Prediction ............................. 135
5. Challenges and Benefits ................................ 136
6. Converter Types ........................................ 137
7. Device Rating .......................................... 140
8. Modern Devices ......................................... 142
9. Economics of Wave Energy ............................... 143
10.Alternative Output ..................................... 147
11.The Future ............................................. 148
References .................................................... 149
9. Biomass ................................................... 151
P. Champagne
1. Introduction ........................................... 151
2. Biomass Resources ...................................... 154
3. Bioenergy and Biofuels ................................. 158
4. Biomass to Energy Conversion Processes ................. 160
5. Bioeconomics ........................................... 166
6. Limitations and Knowledge Gaps ......................... 168
References .................................................... 169
10. Concentrating Solar Power ................................. 171
R. Pitz-Paal
1. Introduction - Concept and Basic Characteristics ....... 171
2. State of the Art ....................................... 175
3. Cost Reduction Potential ............................... 184
4. Potential Impact of CSP Until 2050 ..................... 186
5. Further Options ........................................ 191
References .................................................... 191
11. Hydroelectric Power ....................................... 193
M. Вaimer and D. Spreng
1. History and Development ................................ 194
2. Technology ............................................. 197
3. Hydropower and Sustainability .......................... 200
4. Economics of Hydropower ................................ 203
5. Hydropower in Liberalized Electricity Markets .......... 206
References .................................................... 208
12. Geothermal Energy ......................................... 211
I.L. Rentier
1. Heat Flow and Subsurface Temperatures .................. 211
2. Tectonic Controls ...................................... 212
3. Types of Geothermal System ............................. 215
4. Worldwide Geothermal Potential ......................... 216
5. Worldwide Geothermal Development ....................... 217
6. Methods for Electrical Generation ...................... 218
7. Direct Use of Geothermal Energy ........................ 220
8. Environmental Constraints .............................. 220
9. The Future ............................................. 221
10.Sources of Additional Information ...................... 222
References .................................................... 222
13. Solar Energy: Photovoltaics ............................... 225
D. Infield
1. Background ............................................. 225
2. The Solar Resource ..................................... 225
3. Outline of the Conversion Process ...................... 228
4. Manufacturing Processes ................................ 232
5. Applications ........................................... 235
6. Brief Summary of Research Challenges ................... 237
Acknowledgements .............................................. 238
References .................................................... 238
Part III Potentially Important New Types of Energy ............ 239
14. The Pebble Bed Modular Reactor ............................ 241
D. Matzner
1. Historical Preface ..................................... 242
2. Reactor Unit ........................................... 243
3. Nuclear Safety ......................................... 248
4. Technological Applications ............................. 252
5. Project Status ......................................... 255
References .................................................... 257
15. Fuel Cells and Batteries .................................. 259
J. Salminen, D. Steingart and T. Kallio
1. Fuel Cells ............................................. 259
2. Batteries .............................................. 265
3. Concluding Remarks ..................................... 275
References ............................................... 275
16 Methane Hydrates .......................................... 277
E. Allison
1. Background ............................................. 278
2. Detection and Quantification ........................... 281
3. Production Technology .................................. 283
4. Economics .............................................. 288
5. Time Scale for Development ............................. 288
References .................................................... 289
17. Nuclear Fusion ............................................ 291
L.R. Grisham
1. What is Nuclear Fusion? ................................ 291
2. Desirable Characteristics of Fusion Power .............. 293
3. Why Fusion Power is Challenging ........................ 295
4. Approaches to Fusion Reactors .......................... 296
5. Economics of Fusion Energy ............................. 299
6. Prospects for Fusion Energy ............................ 300
References .................................................... 301
Part IV New Aspects to Future Energy .......................... 303
18. Carbon Capture and Storage for Greenhouse Effect
Mitigation ................................................ 305
D. Tondeur and F. Teng
1. Introductory Aspects ................................... 305
2. Capture Techniques ..................................... 310
3. Geological Storage of C02 .............................. 323
4. Costs .................................................. 328
5. Conclusion ............................................. 329
References .................................................... 330
19. Smart Energy Houses of the Future - Self-supporting
in Energy and Zero Emission ............................... 333
R.D. Wing
1. Design and Construction of Energy-efficient
Buildings .............................................. 334
2. Design of Very-low- or Zero-energy Housing ............. 337
3. Future Technical Developments and Demonstration
Projects ............................................... 341
4. Guidelines for Future Energy-efficient Housing ......... 345
References .................................................... 345
20. The Prospects for Electricity and Transport
Fuels to 2050 ............................................. 347
A.G. Dutton and M. Page
1. Introduction ........................................... 347
2. Future Energy Scenarios ................................ 349
3. Primary Energy Policy Drivers .......................... 356
4. Future Energy Fuel Options and Supply Structures
for Transport .......................................... 359
5. Future Energy Supply Structures for Electricity ........ 365
6. Conclusions ............................................ 368
Acknowledgements .............................................. 369
References .................................................... 369
Index ......................................................... 371
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