SECTION I Emulsions
Preface ...................................................... xvii
Acknowledgments ............................................... xix
1 Why Study Continental Aquatic Systems? ....................... 1
Human Utilization of Water: Pressures on a Key Resource ...... 4
What Is the Value of Water Quality? .......................... 7
Summary ..................................................... 11
Questions for Thought ....................................... 11
2 Properties of Water ......................................... 13
Chemical and Physical Properties ............................ 13
Relationships among Water Viscosity, Inertia, and
Physical Parameters ......................................... 17
Movement of Water ........................................... 20
Forces That Move Water ...................................... 25
Summary ..................................................... 28
Questions for Thought ....................................... 28
3 Movement of Light, Heat, and Chemicals in Water ............. 31
Diffusion in Water .......................................... 31
Light and Heating of Water .................................. 36
Summary ..................................................... 44
Questions for Thought ....................................... 45
4 Hydrology and Physiography of Groundwater and Wetland
Habitats ................................................. 47
Habitats and the Hydrologic Cycle ........................... 47
Movement Through Soil and Groundwater ....................... 50
Wetlands .................................................... 56
Summary ..................................................... 65
Questions for Thought ....................................... 66
5 Physiography of Flowing Water ............................... 69
Characterization of Streams ................................. 69
Stream Flow and Geology ..................................... 76
Movements of Materials by Rivers and Streams ................ 82
Summary ..................................................... 88
Questions for Thought ....................................... 89
6 Physiography of Lakes and Reservoirs ........................ 91
Formation: Geological Processes ............................. 91
Lake Habitats and Morphometry .............................. 100
Stratification ............................................. 103
Water Movement and Currents in Lakes ....................... 107
Summary .................................................... 110
Questions for Thought ...................................... 111
7 Types of Aquatic Organisms ................................. 113
The Species Concept ........................................ 114
Major Taxonomic Groups ..................................... 116
Classification of Organisms by Functional Significance ..... 119
Organisms Found in Freshwater Systems ...................... 122
Summary .................................................... 123
Questions for Thought ...................................... 123
8 Microbes and Plants ........................................ 125
Viruses .................................................... 126
Archaea .................................................... 128
Bacteria ................................................... 128
Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae or Cyanophytes) ............ 131
Protoctista ................................................ 133
Eukaryotic Algae ........................................... 133
Protozoa ................................................... 138
Fungi ...................................................... 140
Aquatic Fungi .............................................. 140
Aquatic Lichens ............................................ 143
Plantae .................................................... 144
Nonvascular plants ......................................... 145
Vascular plants ............................................ 148
Summary .................................................... 149
Questions for Thought ...................................... 150
9 Animals .................................................... 153
Invertebrates .............................................. 153
Phylum Porifera ............................................ 153
Phylum Cnidaria ............................................ 155
Phyla Platyhelminthes and Nemertea ......................... 155
Phylum Gastrotricha ........................................ 157
Phylum Rotifera ............................................ 157
Phylum Nematoda ............................................ 158
Phylum Nematomorpha ........................................ 158
Phylum Mollusca ............................................ 160
Phylum Annelida ............................................ 164
Phylum Bryozoa ............................................. 164
Phylum Tardigrada .......................................... 165
Phylum Arthropoda .......................................... 165
Phylum Chordata, Subphylum Vertebrata ...................... 174
Fishes ..................................................... 175
Tetrapods .................................................. 177
Summary .................................................... 178
Questions for Thought ...................................... 180
10 Biodiversity of Fresh wa ters .............................. 183
Measures of Diversity ...................................... 183
Temporal and Spatial Factors Influencing Evolution of
Freshwater Organisms ....................................... 186
Short-Term Factors Influencing Local Distribution
of Species ................................................. 191
Invasions of Nonnative Species ............................. 195
Extinction ................................................. 197
What Is the Value of Freshwater Species Diversity? ......... 200
Summary .................................................... 201
Questions for Thought ...................................... 201
11 Aquatic Chemistry Controlling Nutrient Cycling:
Redox and 02 ............................................... 203
Chemicals in Freshwaters ................................... 203
Redox Potential, Potential Energy, and Chemical
Transformations ............................................ 207
Oxygen: Forms and Transformations .......................... 212
Photosynthesis ............................................. 215
Distribution of Dissolved Oxygen in the Environment ........ 219
Summary .................................................... 226
Questions for Thought ...................................... 228
12 Carbon ..................................................... 231
Forms of Carbon ............................................ 231
Inorganic Carbon ........................................... 231
Organic Carbon ............................................. 233
Transformations of Carbon .................................. 235
Oxidation of Organic Carbon with Inorganic Electron
Acceptors Other Than 02 .................................... 236
Fermentation ............................................... 237
Methanotrophy .............................................. 239
Methanogenesis ............................................. 240
A General Introduction to Nutrient Cycling and the
Carbon Cycle ............................................... 240
Summary .................................................... 243
Questions for Thought ...................................... 244
13 Nitrogen, Sulfur Phosphorus, and Other Nutrients ........... 247
Nitrogen ................................................... 248
Nitrogen Forms ............................................. 248
Nitrogen Fluxes ............................................ 248
Nitrogen Cycle ............................................. 254
Sulfur ..................................................... 254
Sulfur Forms ............................................... 254
Sulfur Transformations ..................................... 255
Sulfur Cycle ............................................... 257
Phosphorus ................................................. 257
Phosphorus Forms ........................................... 257
Phosphorus Transformations ................................. 257
Silicon, Iron, and Other Trace Nutrient Cycles ............. 259
Silicon .................................................... 259
Iron ....................................................... 260
Gradients of Redox and Nutrient Cycles and Interactions
among the Cycles ........................................... 263
Summary .................................................... 265
Questions for Thought ...................................... 266
14 Effects of Toxic Chemicals and Other Pollutants on
Aquatic Ecosystems ......................................... 269
Basic Toxicology ........................................... 271
Bioassessment .............................................. 274
Acid Precipitation ......................................... 274
Sources and Geography of Acid Precipitation ................ 276
Biological Effects of Acidification ........................ 278
Metals and Other Inorganic Pollutants ...................... 284
Organic Pollutants ......................................... 288
Suspended Solids ........................................... 291
Thermal Pollution .......................................... 291
Summary .................................................... 292
Questions for Thought ...................................... 293
15 Unusual or Extreme Habitats ................................ 295
Adaptations to Extremes .................................... 296
Saline Lakes ............................................... 297
Hot Springs ................................................ 299
Cold Habitats .............................................. 302
Temporary Waters and Small Pools ........................... 304
Ultraoligotrophic Habitats ................................. 307
Deep Subsurface Habitats ................................... 308
The Water Surface Layer .................................... 309
Summary .................................................... 311
Questions for Thought ...................................... 311
16 Nutrient Use and Remineralization .......................... 313
Use of Nutrients ........................................... 313
Nutrient Limitation and Relative Availability .............. 319
Relative Availability of Nutrients ......................... 319
Nutrient Limitation ........................................ 321
The Paradox of the Plankton and Nutrient Limitation ........ 325
Resource Ratios and Stoichiometry of Primary Producers ..... 326
Nutrient Remineralization .................................. 326
What Short-Term Processes Control the Levels of Dissolved
Inorganic Nutrients Such as Ammonium and Phosphate? ........ 327
Processes Leading to Remineralization ...................... 329
Remineralization as a Source of Nutrient Pulses in Lentic
Systems .................................................... 331
Stoichiometry of Heterotrophs, Their Food, and Nutrient
Remineralization ........................................... 332
Summary .................................................... 334
Questions for Thought ...................................... 334
17 Trophic State and Eutrophication ........................... 337
Definition of Trophic State ................................ 338
Why Is Nutrient Pollution Resulting in Algal Blooms
in Lakes Important? ........................................ 341
Natural and Cultural Processes of Eutrophication ........... 342
Relationships among Nutrients, Water Clarity, and
Phytoplankton: Managing Eutrophication in Lakes ............ 344
Mitigating Lake Eutrophication ............................. 349
Control of Nutrient Sources ................................ 350
Treatment in the Lake ...................................... 354
Macrophyte Removal ......................................... 355
Managing Eutrophication in Streams and Wetlands ............ 356
Case Studies of Eutrophication ............................. 358
Lake Washington ............................................ 358
Lake Trummen ............................................... 360
Lake Tahoe ................................................. 361
Lake Okeechobee ............................................ 362
The Clark Fork River ....................................... 362
Eutrophication and Wetlands ................................ 363
Wetlands as Nutrient Sinks ................................. 363
Summary .................................................... 364
Questions for Thought ...................................... 365
18 Behavior and Interactions among Microorganisms and
Invertebrates .............................................. 367
Behavior of Microorganisms ................................. 368
Motility ................................................... 368
Taxis ...................................................... 368
Interaction Types in Microbial Communities ................. 371
Predation and Parasitism ................................... 372
Viruses .................................................... 373
Consumption of Small Cells ................................. 375
Scrapers and Shredders ..................................... 377
Filter Feeders ............................................. 378
Selectivity of Particle Feeders ............................ 378
Microbial Adaptations to Avoid Predation ................... 379
Parasitism ................................................. 380
Other Exploitative Interactions ............................ 381
Competition ................................................ 382
Mutualism: Facilitation and Syntrophy ...................... 384
Chemical Mediation of Microbial Interactions ............... 387
Summary .................................................... 388
Questions for Thought ...................................... 388
19 Predation and Food Webs .................................... 391
Herbivory .................................................. 392
Detritivory and Omnivory ................................... 393
Adaptation to Predation Pressure ........................... 395
Adaptations of Predators ................................... 399
Nonlethal Effects of Predation ............................. 402
Trophic Levels, Food Webs, and Food Chains ................. 403
The Trophic Cascade ........................................ 403
Theoretical Community Ecology and Aquatic Food Webs ........ 408
Summary .................................................... 409
Questions for Thought ...................................... 410
20 Nonpredatory Interspecific Interactions among Plants
and Animals in Fresh water Communities ..................... 413
Competition 414 Mutualism and Facilitation .............. 416
Other Species Interactions ................................. 418
Complex Community Interactions ............................. 418
Disturbance ................................................ 418
Succession ................................................. 420
Indirect Interactions ...................................... 425
Strong Inter actors ........................................ 428
Summary .................................................... 428
Questions for Thought ...................................... 429
21 Fish Ecology and Fisheries ................................. 431
Biogeographical Determinants of Fish Assemblage
Diversity .................................................. 431
Physiological Aspects Influencing Growth, Survival,
and Reproduction 434 Population Dynamics of Fishes ...... 438
Regulating Exploitation of Fish Stocks ..................... 441
Stocking Fish for Fisheries ................................ 444
Aquaculture ................................................ 445
Summary .................................................... 446
Questions for Thought ...................................... 447
22 Freshwater Ecosystems ...................................... 449
General Approaches to Ecosystems ........................... 450
Groundwater Ecosystems ..................................... 455
Streams .................................................... 456
Lakes and Reservoirs ....................................... 460
Wetlands ................................................... 464
Comparison of Freshwater Ecosystems ........................ 469
Summary .................................................... 470
Questions for Thought ...................................... 472
23 Conclusions ................................................ 475
Appendix: Experimental Design in Aquatic Ecology ........... 479
Natural Experiments ........................................ 480
Simulation Modeling ........................................ 481
Manipulative Experiments ................................... 482
Summary .................................................... 483
Glossary ...................................................... 485
References .................................................... 503
Index ......................................................... 553
|
