Preface ........................................................ xi
Editorial Note on Terminology ................................ xiii
Acknowledgements ............................................... xv
Chapter I. ARTEMIA MORPHOLOGY AND STRUCTURE
G.R.J. Criel and T.H. Macrae
1. External Form of Artemia .................................... 1
1.1. INTRODUCTION .......................................... 1
1.2. HEAD .................................................. 3
1.3. THORAX ................................................ 5
1.4. ABDOMEN ............................................... 6
2. Internal Anatomy of Artemia ................................. 6
2.1. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ...................................... 6
2.2. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM .................................... 9
2.3. EXCRETORY SYSTEM ..................................... 11
2.4. NERVOUS SYSTEM ....................................... 12
2.5. SENSORY SYSTEM ....................................... 14
2.5.1. Compound Eyes ................................ 14
2.5.2. Median Eye (Nauplius Eye) and Ventral
Frontal Organs ............................... 16
2.5.3. Dorsal Frontal Organs or Cavity Receptor
Organs ....................................... 17
2.5.4. Other Sense Organs ........................... 17
2.6. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ..................................... 18
2.7. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ........................... 19
2.8. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ............................. 24
3. Artemia Morphology and Structure as Revealed by
Immuno-fluorescent Staining ................................ 30
4. References ................................................. 33
Chapter II. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF ARTEMIA
G.R.J. Criel and T.H. Macrae
1. Introduction ........................................... 39
2. Molecular Aspects of Early Artemia Development ......... 39
3. Morphology of Early Artemia Development .................... 52
3.1. OOGENESIS ............................................ 52
3.2. SPERMATOGENESIS ...................................... 64
3.3. FERTILISATION ........................................ 82
3.3.1. Sperm Cell Incorporation and Development of
the Male Pronucleus .......................... 84
3.3.2. Oocyte Maturation, Polar Body Formation and
Female Pronucleus Development ................ 91
3.3.3. Migration and Interaction of Pronuclei ....... 97
3.3.4. Development of the Fertilisation Membrane ... 100
3.4. EGG ENVELOPE DEVELOPMENT ............................ 103
3.5. CHANGES IN THE RELEASED CRYPTOBIOTIC CYST ........... 106
4. Embryonic Development ..................................... 107
5. Development of Artemia Larvae ............................. 114
5.1. DESCRIPTION OF LARVAL STAGES ........................ 114
5.2. INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT OF ARTEMIA LARVAE .............. 116
6. References ................................................ 119
Chapter III. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF
ARTEMIA ECOLOGY
J.S. Clegg and C.N.A. Trotman
1. Introduction .............................................. 129
2. The Two Paths of Development .............................. 130
3. The Desiccated Cyst ....................................... 132
3.1. THE WATER REPLACEMENT HYPOTHESIS (WRH) AND
VITRIFICATION ....................................... 132
3.2. ANTIOXIDANTS AND RELEVANT ENZYMES ................... 134
4. The Hydrated and Activated Cyst ........................... 135
4.1. ANOXIA .............................................. 135
4.2. THE pH, SWITCH ...................................... 136
4.3. STRESS PROTEINS ..................................... 137
5. Thermal Resistance of Cysts, Larvae and Adults ............ 139
6. Selected Biochemical Features of Encysted Embryo
Development ............................................... 142
6.1. YOLK PLATELETS ...................................... 143
6.2. TREHALOSE AND TREHALASE ............................. 144
6.3. NUCLEOTIDES AND THEIR ENZYMES ....................... 146
6.4. PROTEASES AND THEIR INHIBITORS ...................... 148
7. Emergence and Hatching .................................... 149
8. Emerged Embryos and Instar-I Nauplius Larvae .............. 150
9. Adult Osmoregulation ...................................... 151
10. Oxygen Transport and Consumption in Adults ................ 152
11. Haemoglobins .............................................. 153
11.1. PHYSIOLOGY AND CHARACTERIZATION ..................... 153
11.2. SEQUENCE AND STRUCTURE .............................. 154
11.3. GENE EXPRESSION AND REGULATION ...................... 155
11.4. ADDITIONAL ROLES FOR HAEMOGLOBIN? ................... 157
12. Concluding Remarks ........................................ 158
13. Acknowledgements .......................................... 159
14. References ................................................ 159
Chapter IV. ZOOGEOGRAPHY
G. van Stappen
1. Introduction .............................................. 171
2. Ecological Aspects of Artemia Distribution ................ 174
2.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................ 174
2.2. SALINITY ............................................ 175
2.3. IONIC COMPOSITION ................................... 177
2.4. TEMPERATURE ......................................... 177
2.5. BIOTIC ELEMENTS ..................................... 179
3. Ecological Isolation of Artemia Strains ................... 180
4. Coexistence of Different Artemia Strains .................. 181
4.1. DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS OF ARTEMIA SPECIES ............ 181
4.2. COEXISTENCE OF BISEXUAL STRAINS ..................... 182
4.3. COEXISTENCE OF DIPLOID AND POLYPLOID
PARTHENOGENETIC STRAINS ............................. 182
4.4. COEXISTENCE OF PARTHENOGENETIC AND BISEXUAL
STRAINS ............................................. 183
4.4.1. Competition and Niche Partitioning .......... 183
4.4.2. The Iberian Peninsula ....................... 185
4.4.3. Lake Urmia, Iran ............................ 185
4.4.4. PR China .................................... 186
5. Artemia and Birds: Predation and Dispersal ................ 186
6. Australia: Artemia versus Parartemia ...................... 189
6.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................ 189
6.2. MORPHOLOGICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES
ARTEMIA-PARARTEMIA .................................. 189
6.3. DISTRIBUTION OF ARTEMIA AND PARARTEMIA OVER THE
AUSTRALIAN CONTINENT ................................ 191
6.4. BIOCONSERVATION ..................................... 193
7. "New" Artemia Biotopes: Commercial Exploitation and Funda
mental Research ........................................... 193
7.1. MEDITERRANEAN BASIN AND SOUTHERN EUROPE ............. 195
7.2. PR CHINA ............................................ 195
7.3. SOUTH AMERICA ....................................... 196
8. Conservation of Artemia Biotopes and their Gene Pool ...... 197
9. Acknowledgements .......................................... 215
10. References ................................................ 215
Chapter V. EVOLUTION AND SPECIATION
G. Gajardo, T.J. Abatzopoulos, I. Kappas
and J.A. Beardmore
1. Introduction .............................................. 225
2. Artemia Species and Genome Characterization ............... 227
2.1. KARYOLOGY ........................................... 228
2.2. ALLOZYME DIVERGENCE ................................. 230
2.3. DNA MARKERS ......................................... 231
3. Genetic Variation, Ecology and Evolution .................. 233
3.1. HETEROZYGOSITY AND LIFE HISTORY TRAITS .............. 233
3.2. BISEXUAL VS PARTHENOGENETIC TYPES ................... 236
4. Population Structure and Pattern of Speciation in
Artemia ............................................. 237
4.1. A CASE STUDY OF A SUPERSPECIES: A. FRANCISCANA ...... 240
5. Reproductive Isolation .................................... 242
6. Final Remarks ............................................. 243
7. References ................................................ 245
Chapter VI. APPLICATIONS OF ARTEMIA
J. Dhont and P. Sorgeloos
1. Introduction .............................................. 251
2. Artemia Cyst Supply ....................................... 251
2.1. A SHORT HISTORIC OVERVIEW ........................... 251
2.2. GREAT SALT LAKE: ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS ................. 252
2.3. TRENDS IN SUPPLY AND DEMAND ......................... 255
3. Artemia and Solar Salt Production ......................... 256
3.1. IMPORTANCE OF SALT .................................. 256
3.2. SOLAR SALT PRODUCTION ............................... 256
3.3. BENEFICIAL EFFECT OF ARTEMIA IN SALT PRODUCTION ..... 257
3.4. AN EXAMPLE OF ARTEMIA, SALT AND SHRIMP
INTEGRATION: THE BOHAI BAY, PR CHINA ................ 257
4. Artemia and Aquaculture ................................... 259
4.1. ARTEMIA AS INSTANT LIVE FOOD ........................ 259
4.2. USE OF ARTEMIA NAUPLII .............................. 259
4.3. THE MYSTERY OF THE "UNIDENTIFIED FATTY ACIDS" ....... 261
4.4. ENRICHMENT OR BIO-ENCAPSULATION TECHNIQUES .......... 265
4.5. COLD STORAGE OF ARTEMIA NAUPLII ..................... 267
4.6. USE OF DECAPSULATED CYSTS ........................... 267
4.7. USE OF JUVENILE AND ADULT ARTEMIA ................... 268
5. Applications of Artemia Pond Culture ...................... 269
5.1. VALORISATION OF UNICELLULAR ALGAE RESOURCES ......... 269
5.2. INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE OPERATIONS RELYING
ON ARTEMIA POND CULTURE ............................. 269
5.3. VALORISATION OF ORGANIC WASTE AND USE OF
ARTEMIA IN EFFLUENT TREATMENT ....................... 270
6. Use of Artemia in Research and Education .................. 270
6.1. THE CONSEQUENCES OF BEING "EXTREMOTOLERANT" ......... 270
6.2. ARTEMIA IN ECOTOXICOLOGY ............................ 271
6.3. ARTEMIA AS A DIDACTIC TOOL .......................... 271
6.4. ARTEMIA IN PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND SEX EDUCATION ....... 271
7. Acknowledgements .......................................... 272
8. References ................................................ 272
7. Index ..................................................... 279
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