Foreword by the series editors .................................. v
Preface to the 2nd edition ..................................... xv
Preface ...................................................... xvii
Foreword ...................................................... xxi
1. Introduction to landscape ecology ............................ 1
1.1. Introduction ............................................ 1
1.2. The contribution of different disciplines to the
creation paradigmatic framework in landscape ecology .... 3
1.3. Definitions of landscape (A gallery) .................... 4
1.4. An epistemological approach to the landscape ............ 6
1.4.1. The nature of landscape ......................... 8
1.4.2. The role of landscape ........................... 8
1.4.2.1. Landscape as domain .................... 8
1.4.2.2. Landscape as system .................... 9
1.4.2.3. Landscape as unit ...................... 9
1.5. The description of landscape ........................... 10
1.5.1. The "ecological" landscape ..................... 10
1.5.1.1. Principles of landscape
classification ........................ 10
1.5.2. The cognitive landscape ........................ 15
1.5.2.1. Spacing: The perception of the
landscape ............................. 21
1.5.2.2. Space and memory ...................... 25
1.5.2.3. Embodiment and cognition .............. 25
1.5.2.4. Safety and aesthetic landscape,
amenity ............................... 26
1.5.2.5. Topographic prominence, the visual
landscape ............................. 28
1.5.2.6. The psychological landscape ........... 29
1.5.2.7. Mystery in landscape .................. 29
1.5.2.8. Behavioral ecology and landscape
ecology ............................... 29
1.5.2.9. Information landscape ................. 31
1.5.2.10.The eco-field hypothesis .............. 32
1.5.2.11.The soundscape ........................ 38
1.5.2.12.Animal movements in the landscape ..... 42
2. Theories and models incorporated in the landscape
ecology framework ........................................... 53
2.1. Introduction ........................................... 53
2.2. Complexity ............................................. 53
2.2.1. The emergence of complexity .................... 54
2.2.1.1. The Uncertainty Hypothesis (UH) ....... 55
2.2.1.2. The Inter-domain Hypothesis (IH) ...... 55
2.2.1.3. The Connection Hypothesis (CH) ........ 56
2.3. Information ............................................ 56
2.3.1. Information as universal coinage ............... 58
2.3.2. Information as a measure of probability ........ 59
2.3.3. Information-processing performance
of systems ..................................... 60
2.4. Cognition and autopoiesis .............................. 61
2.5. Semiotic, bio and eco-semiotics ........................ 62
2.6. The hierarchy theory and the structure of
the landscape .......................................... 64
2.7. The percolation theory ................................. 69
2.8. The metapopulation ..................................... 72
2.8.1. Introduction ................................... 72
2.8.2. Dispersion ..................................... 73
2.8.3. Examples of metapopulation structure ........... 74
2.8.4. Metapopulation and conservation biology ........ 74
2.9. The source-sink systems ................................ 75
2.9.1. Definition ..................................... 75
2.9.2. Implications of the source-sink model .......... 77
2.9.3. Pseudo-sinks ................................... 77
2.9.4. Traps .......................................... 78
2.9.5. Source-sink in time or multiple source-sink
model .......................................... 78
2.9.6. Stable maladaptation ........................... 78
2.9.7. Source-sink dynamic and conservation issues .... 80
2.9.8. Concluding remarks ............................. 80
3. Scaling patterns and processes across landscapes ............ 87
3.1. Introduction ........................................... 87
3.2. Some definitions ....................................... 88
3.3. Moving across scales ................................... 89
3.4. Scaling the landscape .................................. 92
3.5. Change of perception scale ............................. 93
3.6. The multiscale option .................................. 95
3.7. The importance of the parameters at the different
scales ................................................. 96
3.8. Grain size and scaling ................................. 97
3.9. Assessing landscape scale of analysis .................. 98
3.10.Examples of scales in landscape and in
ecology-related disciplines ............................ 99
3.10.1. Scaling the quaternary landscape ............... 99
3.10.2. Scaling patterns: The catchment scale ......... 100
3.10.3. Scaling abiotic processes: Hydrological
processes and scales .......................... 102
3.10.4. Scaling evidence in animals ................... 103
3.10.5. Landscape organization and scaling approach ... 104
4. Emerging processes in the landscape ........................ 109
4.1. Introduction .......................................... 109
4.2. Disturbance ........................................... 110
4.2.1. Introduction .................................. 110
4.2.2. Snow cover, an example of abiotic
disturbance ................................... 113
4.2.3. Human disturbances ............................ 114
4.2.4. Gap disturbance in forest ..................... 118
4.2.5. Gaps in savanna ............................... 119
4.2.6. Fire disturbance in landscapes ................ 121
4.2.7. Pathogens disturbance ......................... 125
4.2.8. Animal disturbance ............................ 126
4.3. Fragmentation ......................................... 128
4.3.1. Introduction .................................. 128
4.3.2. Scale and patterns of fragmentation ........... 132
4.3.3. Community composition and diversity
in fragments .................................. 134
4.3.4. Species, guilds and fragmentation ............. 139
4.3.5. Habitat fragmentation and extinction .......... 143
4.3.6. Predation and fragmentation ................... 144
4.3.7. Island size and isolation: A key to
understanding fragmentation ................... 146
4.3.8. Habitat fragmentation and animal behavior ..... 147
4.3.9. Measuring the effects of fragmentation ........ 148
4.3.10. The complexity and unpredictability of
fragmented landscapes ......................... 150
4.4. Connectivity, Connectedness and Corridors ............. 150
4.4.1. Introduction .................................. 150
4.4.2. Corridors: Structure and functions ............ 152
4.5. Soil landscape and movement of water and nutrients
across landscape ...................................... 157
4.5.1. Introduction .................................. 157
4.5.2. Soil landscape ................................ 159
4.5.3. The role of riparian vegetation in nutrient
dynamics ...................................... 165
4.5.4. Origin, composition and flux of dissolved
organic carbon in a small watershed ........... 167
4.5.5. Leaf litter movements in the landscape ........ 168
4.5.6. Spatial patterns of soil nutrients ............ 168
5. Emerging patterns in the landscape ......................... 179
5.1. Introduction .......................................... 179
5.2. Landscape heterogeneity ............................... 179
5.2.1. Introduction .................................. 179
5.2.2. Scale and ecological neighborhoods ............ 183
5.2.3. Disturbance and heterogeneity ................. 184
5.2.4. Heterogeneity and animals ..................... 186
5.2.5. Spatial heterogeneity and prey-predator
control system ................................ 189
5.2.6. Foraging efficiency and heterogeneity ......... 189
5.2.7. Heterogeneity and migratory birds resource
use ........................................... 191
5.2.8. Quantify spatial heterogeneity ................ 193
5.3. Ecotones .............................................. 195
5.3.1. Introduction .................................. 195
5.3.2. The importance of ecotones .................... 197
5.3.3. Concepts and definitions ...................... 198
5.3.4. Difficulties in studying ecotones ............. 200
5.3.5. Spatio-temporal scales and the hierarchy
of ecotones ................................... 202
5.3.6. Ecotone classification ........................ 204
5.3.6.1. Horizontal and vertical ecotones ..... 204
5.3.6.2. Natural versus human-induced
ecotones ............................. 204
5.3.7. Structural and functional character
of ecotones ................................... 206
5.3.8. Exogen controls for the creation and
maintenance of ecotones ....................... 209
5.3.9. Intrinsic controls in the creation and
maintenance of ecotones ....................... 210
5.3.10. Characters of the ecotones .................... 212
5.3.10.1.Permeability of ecotones and
diffusion of vectors ................. 212
5.3.10.2.Animal movement across ecotones ...... 214
5.3.11. The function of ecotones in the landscape ..... 217
5.3.12. The role of the ecotones in maintaining
local, regional and global diversity .......... 217
5.3.13. Human impact on the functioning of ecotones ... 218
5.3.14. Climatic changes and ecotones ................. 219
5.3.15. The economy and ecotones ...................... 220
5.3.16. Genotones ..................................... 221
6. Principles of landscape dynamics ........................... 229
6.1. Introduction .......................................... 229
6.1.1. The ontogenesis of the landscape (mosaic) ..... 232
6.2. Stability in landscapes ............................... 234
6.3. Self-organizing mechanisms and landscapes ............. 235
6.4. Landscape shaping factors ............................. 236
6.5. Landscape changes in human perturbed landscapes ....... 237
6.5.1. Agriculture intensification ................... 238
6.5.2. Agriculture abandonment ....................... 239
6.5.3. Fire suppression .............................. 239
6.5.4. Deforestation ................................. 241
6.5.5. Livestock grazing ............................. 243
6.5.6. Development ................................... 244
6.6. Patterns in landscape changes: Some examples .......... 246
6.7. Mediterranean landscapes as an example of
perturbation-dependent homeorethic systems ............ 250
6.8. Patterns and processes in land abandonment ............ 255
6.8.1. Introduction .................................. 255
6.8.2. The effects of land abandonment on fauna ...... 260
7. Principles for landscape conservation, management
and design ................................................. 267
7.1. Introduction .......................................... 267
7.2. Landscape evaluation .................................. 268
7.3. The cultural landscape ................................ 269
7.3.1. Definition .................................... 269
7.3.2. Interaction between natural and cultural
landscapes .................................... 270
7.3.3. The fragility of the cultural landscapes ...... 273
7.3.4. The cultural keystone species ................. 273
7.3.5. Landscape indicators .......................... 274
7.3.6. Predictive landscape models ................... 275
7.4. Principles for landscape management ................... 275
7.4.1. Introduction .................................. 275
7.4.2. The importance of watershed scale
management .................................... 277
7.4.3. The role of keystone species in landscape
management .................................... 278
7.5. Nature conservation and landscape ecology ............. 279
7.5.1. Introduction .................................. 279
7.5.2. Landscape principles for natural reserves ..... 280
7.5.3. Disturbance regime and reserve design
indications ................................... 281
7.5.4. Inter-refuge corridor design .................. 285
7.5.5. Hedgerows systems to conserve biodiversity
in rural landscape ............................ 285
7.6. Conservation in landscapes ............................ 287
7.6.1. Introduction .................................. 287
7.6.2. Conservation of fragmented habitats and
populations ................................... 290
7.6.3. Conserving large carnivores ................... 295
7.6.4. Toward the conservation of processes:
Western paleartic bird migration .............. 297
7.6.5. Landscape patterns and conservation ........... 298
7.7. Landscape design (creation) and restoration ........... 299
7.8. Hierarchical structure of the system and
biodiversity conservation ............................. 301
7.9. Application of the "full" versus "empty" world
hypothesis to landscape management .................... 303
7.10.Spatially explicit modeling approach applied to
animal dynamics ....................................... 304
7.11.The landscape species approach ........................ 304
7.12.Urban landscape: Greenways and safety ................. 306
8. Methods in landscape ecology ............................... 313
8.1. Introduction .......................................... 313
8.2. Metrics in landscape ecology .......................... 314
8.2.1. Non-spatial metrics ........................... 316
8.2.2. Spatial metrics ............................... 318
8.2.2.1. Patch shape metrics .................. 319
8.2.2.2. Distance metrics ..................... 323
8.2.2.3. Texture metrics ...................... 326
8.2.2.4. Semivariance ......................... 333
8.2.2.5. Measuring boundaries in the
landscape ............................ 333
8.2.2.6. Measuring fragmentation .............. 335
8.3. The fractal geometry approach ......................... 335
8.3.1. Introduction .................................. 335
8.3.2. Concepts and definitions ...................... 336
8.3.3. The fractal dimension of the edges ............ 338
8.3.4. The fractal dimension of patches .............. 340
8.3.5. Semivariance and fractal analysis ............. 344
8.3.6. Examples of the application of fractals to
animal behavior ............................... 344
8.4. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) .................. 348
8.4.1. Introduction .................................. 348
8.4.2. The information process ....................... 350
8.4.3. The representation of the spatial
information ................................... 350
8.4.4. GIS organization .............................. 351
8.4.5. Cartographic model ............................ 352
8.4.6. Map layer ..................................... 352
8.4.7. Procedures for cartographic handling and
modeling ...................................... 353
8.4.8. Capturing data ................................ 353
8.4.9. Some cartographic modeling procedures ......... 354
8.4.10. Commands in GIS ............................... 354
8.4.11. GIS and remote sensing ........................ 355
8.4.12. Scaling in GIS ................................ 355
8.4.13. Key study n. 1 ................................ 355
8.4.14. Key study 2 ................................... 356
8.5. Remote sensing in landscape ecology ................... 358
8.5.1. Introduction .................................. 358
8.5.2. Effects of sensor spatial resolution on
landscape structure parameters ................ 361
8.5.3. Remote sensing and landscape boundaries ....... 363
8.5.4. Forest ecology and remote sensing ............. 364
8.5.5. Landscape classification using remote
sensing ....................................... 365
8.5.6. Calibration center concept .................... 366
8.6. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) ...................... 366
8.6.2. The use of GPS in landscape ecology ........... 369
8.7. Spatially Explicit Population Models (SEPM) to
describe population patterns in a landscape ........... 371
8.7.1. Introduction .................................. 371
8.7.2. A spatial patch dynamic model ................. 373
Glossary and acronyms ......................................... 393
Index ......................................................... 401
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