Preface ....................................................... xxv
Acknowledgements ............................................. xxix
Frequently used Abbreviations and Notations .................. xxxi
PART 1. COSMIC RAYS AS AN OBJECT OF RESEARCH AND
AS A RESEARCH INSTRUMENT ................................ 1
Preface to Part 1 ............................................... 2
Chapter 1. Cosmic Rays as an Object of Research ................ 3
1.1. CR as an universal phenomenon in the Universe .......... 3
1.1.1. What are CR? Internal and external CR;
multiple origin of CR .......................... 3
1.1.2. Two maxima in particle energy distribution in
magnetized space plasma ........................ 3
1.1.3. The main cause of the CR phenomenon ............ 4
1.1.4. Formation of CR spectrum and upper energy
limit .......................................... 5
1.2. Main steps of CR discovery and research development .... 6
1.2.1. Air conductivity and CR discovery
(1900-1912) .................................... 6
1.2.2. Investigations of the origin of
'penetrating radiation'; establishment of
extraterrestrial origin of CR (1913—1926) ...... 6
1.2.3. Investigations of the nature of CR: charged
particles or gamma-rays? (1927-1939) ........... 6
1.2.4. Discovery in secondary CR positrons, muons,
pions, and other new elementary particles
(1932-1950) .................................... 8
1.2.5. Investigations of the sign of primary CR
charged particles (1933—1950) .................. 9
1.2.6. The first attempts to measure CR time
variations (1923—1935) ......................... 9
1.2.7. The 1st worldwide network of CR
observatories equipped by ionization
chambers; main results on CR variations
(1934 -1952) .................................. 10
1.2.8. Construction of neutron monitors and the
greatest GLE of February 23, 1956; the IGY
and the 2nd CR wide network (1952-1959) ....... 12
1.2.9. Construction of super NM, the IQSY and
the 3rd CR network, wide use satellites and
space probes for CR research (1960—1992) ...... 14
1.2.10. Development of fundamental and applied CR
research: step by step formation of
International Cosmic Ray Service, wide use
of Internet for real time data exchange,
combining of ground and satellite CR data
(after 1992) .................................. 15
1.3. Main aspects of CR research and their
interconnections ...................................... 18
1.3.1. The first aspect: CR underground and in the
atmosphere .................................... 18
1.3.2. The second aspect: CR in the magnetosphere
and in space .................................. 19
1.3.3. The third aspect: CR of solar, planetary,
and interplanetary origin ..................... 19
1.3.4. The forth aspect: CR astrophysics ............. 20
1.3.5. The fifth aspect: CR elementary particles
and high-energy physics ....................... 20
1.3.6. Interconnections between different aspects
of CR research ................................ 20
1.4. Primary CR: energy spectrum, chemical and isotopic
contents, antimatter .................................. 21
1.4.1. Primary CR of extragalactic, galactic, and
solar origin .................................. 21
1.4.2. Energy spectrum and chemical composition of
galactic CR; main sources of CR in
the Galaxy .................................... 21
1.4.3. Protons and a-parlicles in primary
galactic CR ................................... 25
1.4.4. Isotopic contents of primary galactic CR ...... 28
1.4.5. Primary electrons and positrons in
galactic CR ................................... 31
1.4.6. Antimatter in galactic CR; the problem
asymmetry in the Galaxy and the Universe ...... 33
Chapter 2. Secondary CR Underground and in the Atmosphere ..... 39
2.1. CR interactions with air and ground atoms ............. 39
2.2. Meson-nuclear cascade and generation of pions ......... 39
2.3. Meson-nuclear and electromagnetic cascades in the
atmosphere; Geant4 simulation Monte Carlo code ........ 40
2.4. Secondary CR underwater and underground ............... 43
2.4.1. Origin and nature of CR underwater and
underground ................................... 43
2.4.2. CR measurements underwater and underground .... 44
2.4.3. The CR intensity dependence on depth of
water and ground .............................. 44
2.4.4. Energy dependence ofmuon absorption path ...... 46
2.4.5. Angular distribution ofmuons underwater and
underground ................................... 47
2.5. Negative and positive muons in the atmosphere ......... 47
2.6. Secondary neutrino fluxes in the atmosphere and
underground ........................................... 50
2.7. Underground measurements of solar and cosmic
neutrinos ............................................. 52
2.7.1. Importance of solar and cosmic neutrinos
measurements for Astrophysics and
Elementary Particle Physics ................... 52
2.7.2. Solar neutrinos deficit and oscillations;
non zero neutrino mass ........................ 53
2.7.3. Possible anomalous magnetic moment and
spin-flavor neutrino precession ............... 54
2.7.4. Main results obtained in KamiokaNDE and
Super-KamiokaNDE; detection of solar,
atmospheric, and cosmic neutrinos from
Supernova; neutrino oscillations, the
problem of proton decay ....................... 59
2.8. Secondary neutrons and protons in the atmosphere ...... 61
2.9. Secondary gamma rays in the atmosphere from galactic
and solar CR .......................................... 67
2.10. Secondary gamma-rays from precipitating radiation
belts electrons ....................................... 69
2.11. Secondary electrons, positrons, and photons
generated by CR in the atmosphere ..................... 71
2.12. CR albedo radiation directed down and up .............. 75
2.13. Secondary CR in the troposphere and stratosphere ...... 78
2.13.1. Regular radio-balloon CR measurements and
comparison with ground measurements by NM
and MT ........................................ 78
2.13.2. Altitude and angular distributions of
secondary CR intensity at different cut-off
rigidities ................................... 79
2.13.3. Time variations of secondary CR intensity
at different depths in troposphere and
stratosphere ................................. 81
2.13.4. The atmospheric cut-off energy for radio-
balloon measurements vs. atmospheric depth ... 82
2.13.5. Precipitation of high-energy electrons from
the Earth's radiation belts .................. 83
2.13.6. Bremsstrahlung photons from precipitating
high-energy electrons ........................ 85
2.14. Perspectives of secondary CR research development ..... 88
Chapter 3. Coupling Functions, Integral Multiplicities, and
Inverse Transformations ............................ 89
3.1. Integral multiplicities, coupling functions, and
CR time variations .................................... 89
3.2. The interference between different CR variation
classes ............................................... 91
3.3. CR in the geomagnetic field: asymptotic directions,
penumbra and cut-off rigidities ....................... 91
3.4. Determination of coupling functions and integral
multiplicities by geomagnetic effects; extrapolation
to higher energies and estimations for underground
detectors and EAS installations ....................... 93
3.4.1. Using geomagnetic effects for determining
coupling functions and integral
multiplicities ................................ 93
3.4.2. Extrapolation to higher energies or
rigidities .................................... 93
3.4.3. Coupling functions for underground CR
measurements .................................. 97
3.4.4. Coupling functions for EAS ................... 101
3.5. Analytical calculations of integral multiplicities
and coupling functions for CR total neutron
component ............................................ 107
3.5.1. Calculations of integral multiplicities and
coupling functions for neutron component
using the method of discontinue Markov
processes .................................... 107
3.5.2. Calculations of integral multiplicity,
coupling and response functions for total
neutron component by consideration of
hadronic cascade in the atmosphere ........... 112
3.6. Calculations of integral multiplicities and
coupling functions for multiple neutrons in
NM-IQSY .............................................. 119
3.7. Monte Carlo simulation of NM sensitivity (integral
multiplicity) to primary protons arriving at
different zenith angles .............................. 125
3.7.1. Calculations of integral multiplicity for
primary protons with energy 3 and 10 GeV ..... 125
3.7.2. Dependence of integral multiplicities on
atmospheric depth ............................ 126
3.7.3. Dependence of integral multiplicities on
the zenith angle ............................. 127
3.7.4. Dependence of integral multiplicities on
atmospheric depth and zenith angle ........... 128
3.7.5. Test of Dorman and Pakhomov (1979)
calculations of the integral multiplicities
by solar neutron observation data ............ 128
3.8. Analytical presentation of coupling functions ........ 129
3.8.1. The form of analytical approximation for
coupling functions ........................... 129
3.8.2. Analytical approximation for CR intensity
dependence on cut-off rigidity ............... 129
3.8.3. Analytical presentation of coupling
functions for NM-IQSY (total intensity
and different multiplicities); their
dependencies from solar activity ............. 130
3.8.4. Analytical representation of polar coupling
functions for different CR secondary
components ................................... 131
3.9. Difference coupling functions for CR observations
in the atmosphere and their analytical
representation ....................................... 131
3.9.1. The problem of narrowing the energy
sensitivity of CR instruments ................ 131
3.9.2. The main equation for the difference
intensities for the two identical CR
instruments at different cut-off
rigidities ................................... 131
3.9.3. Representation of the differential coupling
functions through polar coupling functions ... 133
3.9.4. Analytical approximation for the difference
coupling function ............................ 133
3.9.5. The difference coupling functions for
inclined muon telescopes ..................... 134
3.9.6. Main equation for determination of CR
variations of magnelospheric and
extraterrestrial origin using the
difference coupling functions for
observations in atmosphere ................... 135
3.10. Difference coupling functions and difference
meteorological coefficients for underground
CR observations ...................................... 136
3.10.1. The difference coupling functions for
underground observations by identical muon
telescopes relevant to the coupling
functions for single instruments ............. 136
3.10.2. Difference coupling functions for
underground measurements on the same depth
but at different zenith angles ............... 138
3.10.3. The difference meteorological coefficients
for pair of underground observations and
their relation to the meteorological
coefficients for single instruments .......... 139
3.10.4. General equation of the variations for the
relative difference in the CR intensities
from underground observations ................ 140
3.11. Spectrographic method for determining rigidity
spectrum of primary CR variation on the basis of
single observatory data .............................. 140
3.11.1. Two approximations for rigidity spectrum
of primary CR variation ...................... 140
3.11.2. Determination of the rigidity spectrum of
primary CR variation in the magnetically
quiet period ................................. 141
3.11.3. Determination of the rigidity spectrum of
primary CR variation and cut-off rigidity
change in magnetically disturbed periods ..... 142
3.11.4. Special program for on-line determination
of energy spectrum of CR primary variation ... 144
3.12. Spectrographic method on the basis of two CR
Observatories data ................................... 145
3.12.1. Determination of the rigidity spectrum of
primary CR variation in the magnetically
quiet period ................................. 145
3.12.2. Determination of the rigidity spectrum of
primary CR variation and cut-off rigidity
change in the magnetically disturbed
periods ...................................... 147
3.12.3. Spectrographic method for pairs of CR
Observatories with about the same
asymptotic directions ........................ 149
3.13. Ring CR Observatories with about the same
asymptotic latitudes (method of variational
coefficients) ........................................ 149
3.13.1. The basis of the variational coefficients
method ....................................... 149
3.13.2. Determination of the longitude variational
coefficients if the anisotropy follows a
cosine law in latitude ....................... 151
3.13.3. Ways of using the longitude variational
coefficients in studying the anisotropy of
primary variations out of the
magnetosphere ................................ 153
3.13.4. Limitations of the method of variational
coefficients ................................. 155
3.14. Global-spectrographic method (acceptance vectors
and spherical analyses) .............................. 156
3.14.1. Representation of primary CR intensity
variation distribution function by
spherical harmonics .......................... 156
3.14.2. The CR space distribution and the diurnal
variation .................................... 157
3.14.3. Determination of acceptance vectors of
actual instruments ........................... 158
3.14.4. Acceptance vectors for neutron monitors ...... 161
3.14.5. Acceptance vectors for muon detectors ........ 173
3.14.6. Transformation matrices ...................... 177
3.14.7. Method for determining the momentary
anisotropy ................................... 180
3.15. Experimental estimation of the ground detector's
sensitivity to primary CR on the basis of data on
observed CR variations ............................... 181
3.15.1. On the using of experimental data on CR
variations for estimation of coupling
functions and integral multiplicities for
the detectors of secondary CR components ..... 181
3.15.2. On the NM sensitivity to primary protons
below 3 GeV derived from GLE data ............ 185
3.15.3. Using data on short and long term CR
modulation; NM sensitivity changes vs.
altitude and cutoff rigidity ................. 187
3.16. Effective rigidity and effective energy as
characteristics of secondary CR detector
sensitivity to primary CR ............................ 191
3.16.1. The effective rigidities and energies of CR
detectors and their dependence from cutoff
rigidity and primary CR spectrum of
variation .................................... 191
3.16.2. Using the analytical approximation for
coupling functions ........................... 192
3.16.3. Effective rigidities for muon detectors ...... 193
3.16.4. Effective rigidities for total neutron
component .................................... 195
3.16.5. The integral effective energies of CR
ground detectors for long-term CR
modulation in dependence from cutoff
rigidity ..................................... 197
Chapter 4. Experimental Basis of Cosmic Ray Research ......... 201
4.1. Worldwide network of CR Observatories and
CR database .......................................... 201
4.1.1. Worldwide network of CR detectors for
geophysical, astrophysical, and space
research applications ........................ 201
4.1.2. Archives of CR data and formation of CR
data database ................................ 201
4.2. The network of ionization chambers ................... 203
4.3. The network of muon telescopes ....................... 205
4.3.1. Zenith directional diagrams .................. 205
4.3.2. Using plastic scintillators for muon
telescopes ................................... 208
4.3.3. Design of muon telescopes with plastic
scintillators ................................ 210
4.3.4. Narrow angle multi directional telescopes .... 212
4.3.5. World-wide distribution of ground and
underground muon telescopes .................. 214
4.4. Network of neutron monitors of IGY type and neutron
super-monitors of IQSY type .......................... 216
4.4.1. NM as main detector of worldwide network of
ground based CR observatories; the tendency
of combining NM and spacecraft data .......... 216
4.4.2. Examples of CR Observatories equipped
by NM ........................................ 217
4.4.3. Worldwide network of NM: planetary
distribution ................................. 218
4.4.4. Worldwide network of NM: statistical error ... 220
4.4.5. Response of NM worldwide network to CR
isotropic variation .......................... 220
4.4.6. Response of NM worldwide network to CR
North-South asymmetry and solar-
diurnalanisotropy ............................ 222
4.4.7. Sensitivity of NM worldwide network to
solar neutron events ......................... 224
4.4.8. Possible new sensors for neutrons
detecting .................................... 225
4.4.9. On neutron monitors zenith diagrams .......... 226
4.4.10. Recording of multiple neutrons by NM-JGY
and NM-IQSY .................................. 227
4.4.11. Sensitivity of NM to various secondary CR
particles .................................... 230
4.4.12. Detection efficiency ofNM-lGY and NM-IQSY .... 232
4.4.13. Comparison of detection efficiency of
NM-IQSY with different neutron counters ...... 235
4.4.14. The high-latitude NM network as a basis
of the 'Spaceship Earth' concept ............. 237
4.4.15. Intercalibration of the NM worldwide
network ...................................... 240
4.5. Equipments for investigation of very high
energy CR ............................................ 242
4.5.1. Initial EAS equipments and research ........... 242
4.5.2. Recent and planned EAS experiments for CR
research in extremely high energy range
(MILAGRO experiment, OWL - A1RWATCH
experiment, LA AS Network observations of
Air Showers, Tibet-Ill Air Shower Array,
TANGO Array I, Tunka EAS Cherenkov Array,
Auger Observatories, Telescope Array
Project, Underground Multimuon Experiment,
The ASHRA Detector, KASCADE-Grande,
Science-Education Experiment: Wide Area
Small Air Showers Detection System Linked
by Internet) .................................. 245
4.6. CR experiments on aircrafts and balloons ............. 254
4.6.1. The initial CR experiments on aircrafts ...... 254
4.6.2. Some example of recent aircraft CR
experiments .................................. 254
4.6.3. The network of regular radio-balloon CR
measurements ................................. 256
4.6.4. Special CR experiments on long duration
balloons (SOFCAL, HEAT, CAPRICE, AT1C,
TIGER, Polar BEAR, BESS, CREAM) .............. 256
4.7. CR research by geophysical rockets, on satellites
and space-probes ..................................... 263
4.7.1. The initial CR instruments on geophysical
rockets ...................................... 263
4.7.2. Early space instruments for total flux
measurements of electrons, protons,
alpha-particles and gamma-rays ............... 263
4.7.3. Early space instruments for measurements of
nuclei flux lime variations .................. 264
4.7.4. Early space instruments for high energy CR
measurements ................................. 265
4.7.5. Recent space instruments for CR research
(SilEye - Silicon Detector on the MIR Space
Station, NINA, PAMELA, ACCESS, ECCO and
ENTICE on HNX Mission, HIT on TSUBASA, PS
on SELENE, AMS-02 on ISS, EUSU on ISS) ....... 265
4.8. An example of automatically operating CR
Observatory connected to the Internet ................ 273
4.8.1. Israel Cosmic Ray Center and the Israeli-
Italian Emilio Segre' Observatory ............ 273
4.8.2. Description of underground multi-
directional muon telescope ................... 275
4.8.3. Automatic search of the start of great
flare energetic particle events .............. 278
4.8.4. The probability of false alarms .............. 280
4.8.5. The probability of missed triggers ........... 280
4.8.6. Website of ICRC/ESO in Internet and
automatic Alarms on the starting of big
solar CR events .............................. 281
4.9. Development of Solar Neutron Telescope (SNT) a
special detector for search and investigations
of solar neutron events .............................. 282
4.9.1. The first SNT and formation of the SNT
worldwide network ............................ 282
4.9.2. The largest SNT on Ml. Norikura (Japan) ...... 284
4.9.3. Calibrating of SNT ........................... 285
4.9.4. Extending of SNT network: foundation of new
SNT in Mexico ................................ 286
4.9.5. Developing of Super Solar Neutron Telescope
(SSNT) ....................................... 286
PART 2. INFLUENCE OF THE CHANGING ATMOSPHERE ON COSMIC RAYS
(METEOROLOGICAL EFFECTS) .............................. 287
Preface to Part 2 ............................................. 288
Chapter 5. Theory of Cosmic Ray Meteorological Effects for
Measurements in the Atmosphere and Underground
( One-Dimensional Approximation) ................... 289
5.1. Meteorological effects of CR hard muon component ..... 289
5.1.1. Expectedpion intensity ....................... 289
5.1.2. Expected hard muon intensity ................. 290
5.1.3. Expected meteorological variations of muon
intensity .................................... 292
5.1.4. Expected meteorological effects of
different types .............................. 293
5.1.5. Meteorological coefficients for hard muons ... 295
5.1.6. Relative change of meteorological
coefficients for hard muons with changing
of observation conditions .................... 304
5.2. Meteorological effects of CR soft muons .............. 305
5.2.1. Expected intensity of soft muons ............. 305
5.2.2. Expected meteorological variations of CR
soft muons ................................... 306
5.2.3. Expected types of meteorological effects of
soft muons ................................... 307
5.2.4. Meteorological coefficients for soft muons ... 308
5.3. Meteorological effects of CR electron-photon, soft
and general ionized components ....................... 311
5.3.1. CR general ionized, hard, soft and
electron-photon components: main
characteristics .............................. 311
5.3.2. Expected intensity of electronic component
from muons decay ............................. 312
5.3.3. Expected meteorological effects of
electronic component from muon decay ......... 313
5.3.4. Approximate solution for intensity and
meteorological effects of electronic
component from muons decay ................... 314
5.3.5. Expected intensity and meteorological
effects of δ—electrons ....................... 315
5.3.6. Expected meteorological effects of non-
equilibrium part of electron-photon
component .................................... 316
5.3.7. Expected intensity and meteorological
effects of electron-photon component ......... 317
5.3.8. Expected meteorological effects of CR
general ionized component .................... 318
5.4. Meteorological effects of CR total neutron
component and different multiplicities ............... 319
5.4.1. Formation of total neutron component and
different multiplicities detected by
neutron monitors ............................. 319
5.4.2. Expected meteorological effects in total
neutron component and different
multiplicities caused by different
particles .................................... 321
5.4.3. Meteorological effects in total neutron
component and different multiplicities
caused by neutrons and protons: the first
approximation ................................ 321
5.4.4. Meteorological effects in total neutron
component and different multiplicities
caused by neutrons and protons: the second
approximation ................................ 322
5.4.5. Expected meteorological effects in total
neutron component and different
multiplicities caused by captured muons ...... 326
5.4.6. Expected meteorological effects in total
neutron component and different
multiplicities caused by fast muons .......... 327
5.4.7. Expected meteorological effects in total
neutron component and different
multiplicities caused by chargedpions
inside neutron monitor ....................... 327
5.4.8. Summary of temperature effects in total
neutron component ............................ 328
Chapter 6. Experimental Investigations of Cosmic Ray Snow,
Wind and Barometric Effects ....................... 331
6.1. CR snow effect ....................................... 331
6.1.1. CR snow effect on mountains and high-
latitude stations ............................ 331
6.1.2. Regression relations in periods without
snow ......................................... 331
6.1.3. Snow effect on Ml. Hermonfor different
multiplicities ............................... 332
6.1.4. Regression relations between snow effects
in total intensity and in different neutron
multiplicities ............................... 334
6.2. Wind effect in CR .................................... 336
6.3. Barometric effect of EAS ............................. 338
6.3.1. Results for EAS caused by primary CR
energy from 100 TeV to 5000 TeV .............. 338
6.3.2. Barometric effect for a single CR component
of EAS ....................................... 338
6.4. Barometric and temperature effects of ionization
bursts ............................................... 339
6.5. Barometric effect for underground observations
of muon component .................................... 340
6.6. Barometric effect for hard muons ..................... 340
6.7. Barometric effect for general ionizing and soft
cosmic ray components ................................ 341
6.8. Barometric effect for the total neutron component .... 342
6.8.1. Barometric coefficients for the first
non-standard detectors of neutrons ........... 342
6.8.2. Barometric coefficients for the standard
IGY type neutron monitors .................... 342
6.8.3. Comparison of barometric coefficients for
the standard IGY type (Simpson type)
neutron monitor and for IQSY type (NM-64)
super-monitor ................................ 343
6.9. Variation of barometric coefficients for the total
neutron component with altitude and geomagnetic cut
off rigidity ......................................... 343
6.9.1. The dependence of barometric coefficient
at sea level on Rc ........................... 343
6.9.2. The dependence of barometric coefficient on
Rc and average air pressure on the level of
observations ................................. 347
6.10. Barometric coefficients for the total neutron
component: airplane measurements ..................... 347
6.10.1. Results for the average air pressure about
680 mb and 260-315 mb in dependence of cut
off rigidity near solar minimum .............. 347
6.10.2. Dependences β(h) and βν(h) for air
pressure interval 300-1030 mb at cut-off
rigidities 4.94 GV and 8.53 GVnear solar
maximum ...................................... 349
6.10.3. Dependences β(h) and βν(h) vs. air pressure
in the interval 200-1030 mb at Rr. 1.6,
2.4; 5.7 and 13.3 GV near solar minimum and
solar maximum ................................ 350
6.11. Dependence of barometric coefficient from h at
different cut off rigidities and integral method of
calculations of corrections on barometric effect ..... 352
6.12. Influence of primary cosmic ray variations on
barometric coefficients for neutron monitors ......... 353
6.12.1. Influence of solar cosmic rays on
attenuation lengths and barometric
coefficients ................................. 353
6.12.2. Influence of the 11-year solar activity
cycle on CR barometric coefficients .......... 356
6.12.3. On the connection of barometric
coefficient variations with primary time
modulations of CR intensity .................. 359
6.13. Various influences on barometric coefficients for
neutron monitors ..................................... 360
6.13.1. Influence of radioactive contaminations on
barometric coefficients for neutron
monitors ..................................... 360
6.13.2. Influence of accidental coincidences and
generation of mesoatoms by captured soft
negative muons on barometric coefficients
for neutron monitors ......................... 361
6.14. Barometric coefficients for counting rates of
various neutron multiplicities ....................... 361
6.14.1. Connection between barometric coefficients
for total neutron counting rate and for
multiplicities ............................... 361
6.14.2. Results for neutron monitors of IGY type ..... 362
6.14.3. Comparison of results for NM of IGY type
and stationary and shipboard NM of IQSY
type ......................................... 363
6.14.4. Dependence of β(%/mb) for various
multiplicities on Rc ........................ 364
6.14.5. Mean multiplicities for neutron monitor of
IGY type and stationary and shipboard
neutron monitors of IQSY type ............... 365
6.14.6. Analytical approximation for dependence of
barometric coefficient for total neutron
intensity and different neutron multi-
plicities from the level of observation ..... 367
6.15. Determination of barometric coefficients by the
method of consecutive approximations ................. 369
6.15.1. The method of consecutive approximations
for determination of barometric
coefficients ................................ 369
6.15.2. Barometric coefficients for Rome 17-NM-64
of IQSY type ................................ 369
6.15.3. Barometric coefficients for ESO NM-64
(Mt. Hermon): first approximation ........... 370
6.15.4. Barometric coefficients for ESO NM
(Mt. Hermon): second approximation .......... 371
6.15.5. Barometric coefficients for ESO NM
(Mt. Hermon): third approximation ........... 372
6.15.6. Comparison of the three approximations for
barometric coefficients ..................... 373
Chapter 7. Experimental Investigations of Cosmic Ray
Temperature and Humidity Effects .................. 375
7.1. Experimental investigations of temperature effect
and the encountered difficulties ..................... 375
7.2. Integral method for determining of temperature
effect for hard muon component ....................... 376
7.3. Experimental investigations of temperature effect
of the hard muon component intensity underground ..... 380
7.4. Experimental investigations of the temperature and
humidity effects in the neutron component ............ 380
7.4.1. Estimation of possible temperature effect
in neutron component by using of empirical
method of Duperier ........................... 380
7.4.2. The checking of the integral method of
estimation of temperature effect in
neutron component ............................ 381
7.4.3. The measurements of temperature
humidity effects in neutron component ........ 381
7.5. Temporal and latitudinal dependencies of the
temperature effect for cosmic ray neutron
component ............................................ 383
7.5.1. The problem of separation of temperature
effect and North-South anisotropy in the
CR neutron component ......................... 383
7.5.2. The seasonal temperature effect and
North-South anisotropy in the CR neutron
component; determination of factor CT ........ 384
Chapter 8. Atmospheric Electric Field Effects
in Cosmic Rays .................................... 387
8.1. Discovery and detail investigations of atmospheric
electric field effects in CR on the Baksan EAS
array ................................................ 387
8.2. Possible explanations of the observed atmospheric
electric field effects in CR ......................... 392
8.3. Observations on the top of Gran Sasso ................ 394
8.3.1. Observations with NaI(Tl) .................... 394
8.3.2. Observations with EASTOP ..................... 395
8.3.3. On the different nature of long and short
duration events: relative role of
radioactive aerosols and AEF ................. 396
8.4. Atmospheric electric field effects in charged CR
components and in NM counting rate on Mt. Norikura ... 398
8.4.1. Particle acceleration in thunderstorms over
Mt. Norikura during 4-8 August 2000 .......... 398
8.4.2. On the monthly and daily distributions of
AEF effects in CR ............................ 399
8.4.3. AEF influence on CR at 17 July 2002: NM
and charged component data ................... 400
8.4.4. Possible causes of the difference of AEF
effects in CR in Baksan valley and on
Mt. Norikura ................................. 402
8.4.5. Monte Carlo simulations of expected AEF
effects in CR data on Mt. Norikura ........... 402
8.5. The general theory of atmospheric electric field
effects in the CR secondary components ............... 404
8.6. The theory of atmospheric electric field effects in
the hard muon component .............................. 404
8.6.1. Expected intensity of hard positive and
negative muons ............................... 404
8.6.2. Expected influence of atmospheric electric
field on intensity of hard positive and
negative muons ............................... 406
8.6.3. Expected influence of atmospheric electric
field on the total intensity of hard muons ... 407
8.6.4. Absorption contribution to the atmospheric
electric field effects in total hard muon
intensity .................................... 407
8.6.5. Decay contribution to the atmospheric
electric field effects in total hard muon
intensity .................................... 407
8.7. The theory of atmospheric electric field effects in
soft muon intensity .................................. 408
8.7.1. General expression for expected intensity
of positive and negative soft muons in an
atmospheric electric field ................... 408
8.7.2. Expected variations of positive and
negative soft muon intensity in an
atmospheric electric field ................... 408
8.7.3. Absorption part of atmospheric electric
field influence on soft positive and
negative muon intensity ...................... 409
8.7.4. Decay part of atmospheric electric field
influence on soft positive and negative
muon intensity ............................... 410
8.8. Expected atmospheric electric field effects in
neutron monitor total counting rate and in
different multiplicities ............................. 410
8.8.1. Possible atmospheric electric field effects
in neutron monitor ........................... 410
8.8.2. Formation of lead mesoatoms in neutron
monitor by soft negative muons ............... 411
8.8.3. Dependence of lead mesoatoms formation in
neutron monitor on cut-off rigidity and
solar activity ............................... 412
8.8.4. Atmospheric electric field coefficients for
total neutron monitor counting rate and for
different multiplicities ..................... 413
8.8.5. AEF coefficients for NM on Mt. Herman ........ 414
8.9. First observations of atmospheric electric field
effects in total neutron intensity and in different
ultiplicities ........................................ 415
8.9.1. Simultaneous measurements of AEF effects in
total neutron intensity and different
multiplicities in the Emilio Segre'
Observatory on Mt. Herman .................... 415
8.9.2. Measurements of AEF on Mt. Herman;
characteristics of thunderstorm periods ...... 416
8.9.3. Data on electric field and cosmic ray
observations ................................. 419
8.9.4. Regression relations between atmospheric
electric field and counting rates of total
neutron intensity and different
multiplicities ............................... 419
8.9.5. Comparison of experimental results and
theoretical predictions of AEF effects in
NM total intensity and different
multiplicities ............................... 422
Chapter 9. Development of the Theory and Methods of
Determination of Cosmic Ray Variations of
Atmospheric Origin ................................ 425
9.1. Determination of cosmic ray temperature effect by
heights of isobaric levels ........................... 425
9.2. The first, second, and higher approximations in the
integral method ...................................... 425
9.2.1. The general formula for the n-th
approximation for the integral method ........ 425
9.2.2. Commonly used first approximation far the
integral method .............................. 426
9.2.3. The second approximation for the integral
method ....................................... 427
9.2.4. The partial case of stable secondary
component or when ΔT(h,t) = 0 ................ 429
9.3. Calculations of barometric coefficients for
different neutron multiplicities and total neutron
intensity ............................................ 429
9.4. Calculations of barometric coefficients
frequency of external atmospheric showers ............ 432
9.5. Theory of hard muon meteorological accounting the
muon generation spectrum at pions decay .............. 433
9.5.1. Muon generation spectrum at charged pions
decay ........................................ 433
9.5.2. Expected muon intensity at the level of
observation .................................. 434
9.5.3. Comparison of theory with observations for
muon energy spectrum, zenith angle
distribution and altitude dependence of
intensity .................................... 437
9.5.4. Calculations of barometric coefficients for
ground and underground observations of
hard muons ................................... 441
9.5.5. Calculations of temperature coefficients
for ground and underground observations
of hard muons ................................ 444
9.6. Development of the theory of soft muon
meteorological effects ............................... 452
9.6.1. Expected intensity and energy spectrum of
soft muons ................................... 452
9.6.2. Calculations of barometric coefficients for
soft muons ................................... 454
9.6.3. Calculations of temperature coefficients
for soft muons ............................... 456
9.6.4. Temperature coefficients for soft muons
with accounting the angle distribution at
pions decay, and Coulomb scattering .......... 458
9.7. Theory of super-high energy muons temperature
effects .............................................. 464
9.7.1. Expected muon spectrum in super-high energy
region ....................................... 464
9.7.2. Expressions for temperature effect of
super-high energy muons ...................... 467
9.7.3. Calculations of temperature coefficients
for observations of super-high energy
muons ........................................ 468
9.8. Meteorological effects of integral multiplicities,
partial coefficients, and interference of
variations of different origin ....................... 471
9.8.1. General theory of meteorological effects
and classification of time variations ........ 471
9.8.2. Partial meteorological coefficients .......... 472
9.8.3. On the connection between partial and total
meteorological coefficients .................. 473
9.8.4. Theory of meteorological effects accounting
the interference of variations of different
origin ....................................... 474
9.9. CR meteorological coefficients for hard muons on
the basis of 3-D model of meson-nuclear cascades
in the atmosphere .................................... 475
9.9.1. Determination of integral multiplicity for
hard muons ................................... 475
9.9.2. Calculation of temperature effect of muon
integral multiplicity ........................ 477
9.10. The method of partial barometric coefficient ......... 478
9.10.1. Total and partial barometric coefficients .... 478
9.10.2. Determination of partial barometric
coefficient by using data of total
barometric coefficient at different
cut-off rigidities ........................... 479
9.10.3. Calculation of partial barometric
coefficient for total neutron component ...... 480
PART 3. COSMIC RAY INFLUENCE ON THE ATMOSPHERE
AND ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES ............................. 483
Preface to Part 3 ............................................. 484
Chapter 10. Nuclear Reactions of Cosmic Rays with Ground,
Water, and Air Atoms; Production of Cosmogenic
Nuclides .......................................... 485
10.1. Production of stable and unstable cosmogenic
nuclides in space, in bodies, and in atmospheres ..... 485
10.2. Cosmogenic nuclides and vertical mixing of elements
in the Earth's atmosphere; local cosmogenic
coupling functions ................................... 486
10.2.1. The production rate of cosmogenic nuclides
in atmosphere, ground, and water ............. 486
10.2.2. Calculations of cosmogenic nuclides
production rate as a function of altitude
and geomagnetic latitude ..................... 487
10.2.3. The vertical mixing of elements and
integral cosmogenic multiplicity ............. 488
10.2.4. Time-variations and local coupling
functions for production rate of cosmogenic
nuclides in the vertical column of the
atmosphere ................................... 489
10.2.5. Expected changes of cosmogenic nuclides
integral production rates in different
latitudinal zones with variation of
modulation parameter ......................... 491
10.2.6. Expected changes of cosmogenic nuclides
integral production rates in different
latitudinal zones with possible variation
of the Earth's magnetic field ................ 492
10.2.7. Expected cosmogenic nuclide contents in the
vertical column of the atmosphere and its
time-variations .............................. 494
10.3. The planetary mixing in the atmosphere, variations
in planetary cosmogenic nuclides production rate
and planetary coupling functions ..................... 495
10.3.1. Cosmogenic nuclides global production rate
at the planetary mixing in the atmosphere .... 495
10.3.2. Time variation of planetary cosmogenic
.nuclides production rate .................... 496
10.4. Two-reservoir model of elements exchange: the
planetary contents of cosmogenic nuclides in the
atmosphere and their time-variations ................. 497
10.4.1. General solution ............................. 497
10.4.2. Steady-state solution ........................ 498
10.4.3. Expected time variations of planetary
cosmogenic nuclides contents from local
supernova explosion .......................... 499
10.4.4. The inverse problem: estimation of local
supernova explosion parameters by data on
planetary cosmogenic nuclides contents ....... 500
10.4.5. Expected time variations of planetary
cosmogenic nuclides contents from cyclic
variations of production rate ................ 501
10.5. Direct measurements of production rates of
cosmogenic isotopes 10Be, 3He, and 3H ................ 502
10.6. Peculiarities and main results regarding to 7Be ...... 503
10.6.1. Importance of cosmogenic isotope 7Be
investigations for space and atmospheric
physics ...................................... 503
10.6.2. Peculiarities of 7Be production in
atmosphere ................................... 504
10.6.3. Long-term variation of the concentration
of 7Be in the atmosphere (on the basis of
yearly data) ................................. 506
10.6.4. Seasonal variations of 7Be contents in
atmosphere ................................... 507
10.6.5. Variation of 7Be contents with rotation
period of the Sun ............................ 508
10.6.6. Effect of SEP events in 7Be contents ......... 510
10.7. Peculiarities and main results regarding 10Be ........ 510
10.7.1. Mean global 10Be production rate in
dependence of the solar activity level and
of geomagnetic field intensity ............... 510
10.7.2. On the sensitivity of 10Be data to primary
CR modulation, to the change of geomagnetic
field, and to atmosphere mixing models ....... 511
10.7.3. 11-year variation of 10Be concentration in
ice and the problem of 10Be planetary
mixing ....................................... 513
10.7.4. Reflection of 22-year helio-magnetic cycles
in 10Be concentrations in ice ................ 515
10.7.5. Geomagnetic field changes during
1000AD-2000AD, circumpo/ar atmosphere
motions, reflection in 10Be concentrations
in ice ....................................... 515
10.7.6. Reflection in 10Be data long term
Heliospheric modulation in periods of low
and high solar activity ...................... 516
10.7.7. Long term CR variations on the basis of
10Be data .................................... 517
10.7.8. On the expected changes of 10Be contents
in polar ice caused by very great solar
particle events .............................. 519
10.7.9. On the integral effective energy of primary
CR to which are sensitive 10Be and other
cosmogenic nuclides .......................... 519
Chapter 11. Cosmic Ray Influence on Atmospheric Electric
Field and Thunderstorms, Earth's Global Charge
and Global Electric Current ....................... 521
11.1. On two mechanisms of CR connection with
thunderstorm discharges .............................. 521
11.2. Necessary conditions for atmospheric electric field
discharges in the atmosphere ......................... 521
11.3. Measurements of atmospheric electric field, critical
electric field, lightnings, and sprites .............. 524
11.4. External Atmospheric Showers (EAS) generated by
high energy CR particles and thunderstorm
discharges ........................................... 529
11.4.1. EAS and inter-cloud discharges ............... 529
11.4.2. EAS discharge mechanism and descending
lightning (from cloud to ground) ............. 532
11.4.3. EAS discharge mechanism and ascending
(ground-to-cloud) lightnings ................. 534
11.4.4. Application of EAS discharge mechanism to
explanations of red sprites and blue jets .... 534
11.4.5. EAS discharge mechanism and thundercloud
activity over oceans ......................... 536
11.5. On the connection between CR intensity and
discharged atmospheric electric current .............. 536
11.6. On the connection between CR intensity and
frequency of thunderstorm discharges; charged
electric current ..................................... 538
11.7. On the CR role in the equilibrium between charged
and discharged global atmospheric electric currents,
and in the supporting the stability of the Earth's
Charge ............................................... 540
Chapter 12. Air Ionization by CR, Influence on the
Ionosphere and Radio Wave Propagation ............. 541
12.1. Observed disturbances in the ionosphere and
interruptions in radio wave communications during
great GLE of February 23, 1956 ....................... 541
12.2. Expected ionization rate and radio-wave absorption
for different SEP energy spectrums ................... 543
12.3. Riometer measurements of polar absorptions as
method of low energy solar CR monitoring ............. 545
12.4. Galactic and solar CR influence on the low
ionosphere: analytical approach ...................... 546
12.4.1. Comparison of different ionizing agents ...... 546
12.4.2. Analytical approach for protons .............. 546
12.4.3. Analytical approach for nuclei with
charge Z ..................................... 549
12.5. Expected ionization rates during GLE in October
1989, July 2000, and April 2001 ...................... 552
12.5.1. Differential proton fluxes in the range
15-850 MeV during three GLE .................. 552
12.5.2. Expected ionization rates during three GLE ... 554
12.6. The inverse problem: possible using of ionospheric
measurements for estimation of galactic and solar
CR variations ........................................ 556
12.6.1. How to use ionospheric data for galactic
and solar CR research? ....................... 556
12.6.2. General expression for ionization rale
profiles owed to CR of galactic and solar
origin; ion production multiplicity .......... 556
12.6.3. Temporal variations of the ionization rate
(RC,h) and determination of the ionospheric
coupling coefficients for the nuclei Z ....... 557
12.6.4. The total local and polar ionospheric
coupling coefficients ........................ 558
12.6.5. The case of a constant chemical composition
of CR ........................................ 559
12.6.6. The set of the ionospheric spectrographs
equations for continuous observations at
several levels above a single point .......... 559
12.6.7. The set of spectrograph's equations for
continuous observations of ionization rates
above two points at two levels ............... 561
12.7. Altitude distribution of ionization in the
troposphere and stratosphere owed by galactic
CR and ion balance equation .......................... 561
12.8. Spatial and temporal changes of the ionization in
the low atmosphere induced by galactic CR ............ 565
12.8.1. Importance of investigations induced by
galactic CR ionization in the low
atmosphere ................................... 565
12.8.2. The scheme of the step by step calculations
of air ionization in the low atmosphere
induced by galactic CR ....................... 565
12.8.3. The expected 3-D distribution air
ionization in the low atmosphere and long
term variations induced by galactic CR ....... 570
Chapter 13. Cosmic Ray Influence on the Chemical Processes
in the Atmosphere and Formation of Ozone Layer .... 573
13.1. CR influence on the chemistry in the mesosphere ...... 573
13.2. Nitrate abundances in Antarctic and Greenland snow
and ice columns: information on FEP events in the
past ................................................. 575
13.3. Cumulative probabilities of the FEP events vs.
their fluencies for > 30 MeV solar protons on the
basis of nitrate abundances in Antarctic and
Greenland ice columns, satellite data and
cosmogenic isotopes in moon rocks .................... 576
13.4. On the seasonal dependency of great FEP occurrence
according to nitrate data in arctic polar ice ........ 577
13.5. On the possible connection of nitrate enhancements
with geomagnetic storms and auroras .................. 578
13.6. Nitrate signals on the long term CR variations
in the 415 year ice core record ...................... 579
13.7. CR influence on stratospheric chemistry .............. 581
13.8. Long-term galactic CR influence on the ozone layer ... 582
13.9. On the possible relationship of atmospheric ozone
dynamics with global auroral activity, CR Forbush
effects, and IMF clouds .............................. 583
13.10. Short-term solar CR influence on the ozone layer .... 586
13.10.1. Discovery and modeling ofGLE influence on
the ozone layer ............................ 586
13.10.2. GLE in August 1972 ......................... 586
13.10.3. GLE in July 2000 ........................... 588
13.10.4. GLE in April 2001 .......................... 590
13.11. Peculiarities of GLE influence on chemistry
and ozone layer in the upper stratosphere
and lower mesosphere ......................... 590
Chapter 14. Cosmic Ray Influence on Planetary Cloud-Covering
and Long-Term Climate Change ...................... 591
14.1. Short historical review .............................. 591
14.2. On the connection of CR solar cycle variation with
variation of planetary cloud coverage ................ 593
14.3. On the possible influence of long-term CR variation
on long-term changing of planetary surface
temperature .......................................... 596
14.4. CR influence on weather during Maunder minimum ....... 597
14.5. Possible influence of solar activity/cosmic ray
intensity long term variations on wheat prices
(through weather changes) in medieval England ........ 598
14.6. On the connection between integral rate of ion
generation in the atmosphere by CR and total
surface of clouds .................................... 601
14.7. CR influence on precipitation in periods of big
magnetic storms (Forbush - decreases) and solar
CR events ............................................ 602
14.8. On the possible influence of geomagnetic
disturbances and solar activity on the rainfall
level through energetic particle precipitation
from the inner radiation belt ........................ 603
14.8.1. On the possible influence on climate
parameters particle precipitation from
inner radiation belt ......................... 603
14.8.2. Comparison ofKp-index with rainfall level
on the daily data basis ...................... 604
14.8.3. On the connection of the long term
variations of annual rainfalls with
variations of solar and geomagnetic
activity ..................................... 605
14.8.4. On the difference of galactic and solar CR
influence on climate parameters at middle
and low latitudes ............................ 607
14.9. On the possible influence of galactic CR on
formation of cirrus hole and global warming .......... 607
14.10.On the possible influence of long-term variation
of main geomagnetic field on global climate change
through CR cutoff rigidity variation ................. 609
14.10.1.Expected CR intensity variation owed to
cutoff rigidity change ....................... 609
14.10.2.Long-term variation of cut-off rigidity
planetary distribution during 1600-2000 ...... 610
14.10.3.On the long-term change of cutoff
rigidities and expected change of
CR intensity owed to geomagnetic
field variation .............................. 613
14.10.4.The global cutoff rigidities and their
change during the last 2000 years ............ 615
14.11.Cosmic rays and the current trend of the global
warming .............................................. 618
14.12.The Project CLOUD as an important step in
understanding of the links CR-cloud formation-
climate change ....................................... 621
14.13.Possible CR paths in atmosphere forming
intermediate links between variable Sun
and the Earth's climate change ....................... 622
14.14.On the possible role of CR in long-term climate
and landscape change (e.g., Netherlands) ............. 623
PART 4. APPLICATIONS OF COSMIC RAY RESEARCH ................... 625
Preface to Part 4 ............................................. 626
Chapter 15. The Possible Application of the Inverse Problem:
Determination of Atmospheric Conditions by
Cosmic Ray Data ................................... 627
15.1. Determination of air temperature variations in
upper atmosphere by data on underground muon
component variations ................................. 627
15.2. Determination of vertical distribution of air
temperature by simultaneous measurements of several
CR secondary components .............................. 628
15.3. The use of spectrographic method to exclude
geomagnetic and extraterrestrial variations .......... 630
15.4. Determination of altitudinal air temperature
profile using CR data and ground temperature ......... 632
15.5. The general spectrographic method and inverse
problem .............................................. 633
15.5.1. The case of detection of three stable and
one or several unstable cosmic ray
components at a single point ................. 633
15.5.2. The case when all components are unstable;
passive location of the variations in the
vertical distribution of the atmospheric
temperature .................................. 635
15.6. The continuous passive sounding of the variations
in the vertical distribution of the atmospheric
temperature and the air column mass over the
observation level by means of CR ..................... 638
Chapter 16. Meteorological Effects Application to Cosmic
Ray Latitude Survey Data Processing ............... 643
16.1. Cosmic ray latitude surveys and meteorological
effects .............................................. 643
16.2. The Bernoulli effect on measurements of atmospheric
mass for latitude surveys ............................ 645
16.3. Nature and evaluation of sea-state effect on the NM
counting rate ........................................ 647
16.4. Determination of atmospheric absorption, Bernoulli
and sea-state effects in Antarctic region ............ 649
16.4.1. Conditions for multi-correlation analysis .... 649
16.4.2. Multi-correlation analysis for NM data ....... 650
16.4.3. Sea-state, Bernoulli and atmospheric
absorption effects for NM detector ........... 651
16.4.4. Sea-state, Bernoulli and atmospheric
absorption effects for BC detector ........... 654
16.4.5. Summary of the results on the determination
of Bernoulli, sea-state and atmospheric
absorption effects for NM and BC detectors ... 656
16.5. The atmospheric absorption effect as a function of
cut-off rigidity ..................................... 657
16.5.1. Remarks on the atmospheric absorption
effect of NM and BC .......................... 657
16.5.2. Analytical approximation of atmospheric
absorption coefficient vs. cut-off
rigidity ..................................... 659
16.6. Corrections for temperature effect vs. time and
cut-off rigidity ..................................... 660
16.6.1. Temperature coefficient for neutron monitor
vs. cut-off rigidity ......................... 660
16.6.2. Sea-level and vertical air temperature
distributions vs. cut-off rigidity ........... 662
16.6.3. Temperature corrections ofNM-64 counting
rate vs. cut-off rigidity .................... 664
16.6.4. On the temperature effect in the counting
rate of bare neutron counters ................ 666
16.7. Correction of survey data for primary variations
and all meteorological effects ....................... 666
16.7.1. Correction of survey data for primary
variations ................................... 666
16.7.2. Determination of vertical atmospheric mass
corrected for wind effect .................... 666
16.7.3. Correction for sea-state effect .............. 666
16.7.4. Correction for atmospheric absorption
effect ....................................... 668
16.7.5. Corrections for temperature effect ........... 668
16.8. Application of CR meteorological effects to
latitude survey research: summary and conclusions .... 668
Chapter 17. Applications of the Radiocarbon Coupling
Function Method to Investigations of
Planetary Mixing and Exchange Processes;
Influence of H-Bomb Explosions on the
Environment; Cosmic Ray Variations in the Past .... 671
17.1. Cosmogenic nuclides and radiocarbon method for CR
variations, for geophysical and astrophysical
research ............................................. 671
17.2. Radiocarbon production rate vs of latitude,
altitude, and level of solar activity; vertical
mixing in the atmosphere and local coupling
functions for radiocarbon ............................ 672
17.2.1. Production rate of radiocarbon in the
Earth's atmosphere as a function of
atmospheric depth and geomagnetic
latitude ..................................... 672
17.2.2. Vertical mixing of elements in the Earth's
atmosphere, radiocarbon production rate in
total vertical column ........................ 676
17.2.3. Radiocarbon production rate in vertical
column of the atmosphere and its time
variations ................................... 677
17.2.4. Calculations of local and polar radiocarbon
coupling functions;analytical approximation
for coupling functions ....................... 678
17.2.5. Expected variation of radiocarbon coupling
functions during solar activity cycle ........ 680
17.3. Planetary mixing in the atmosphere and the
planetary coupling function for radiocarbon;
analytical approximation and change with solar
activity ............................................. 682
17.3.1. Planetary mixing of elements in the Earth's
atmosphere and planetary radiocarbon
production rate .............................. 682
17.3.2. Time variations of planetary production
rate and planetary radiocarbon coupling
functions .................................... 684
17.3.3. Planetary radiocarbon magnetic and
barometric coefficients ...................... 685
17.3.4. On the influence of the planetary mixing
of elements on the time variation of
radiocarbon production rate .................. 686
17.3.5. Situation in the case of giant solar flare
event or local supernova explosion ........... 687
17.4. Radiocarbon contents and planetary elements
exchange in the frame of 2-reservoir model ........... 688
17.4.1. Radiocarbon contents in dated samples ........ 688
17.4.2. Non-stationary solution for radiocarbon
contents in the frame of 2-reservoir
model of elements exchange on the Earth
at any initial condition ..................... 688
17.4.3. Solution for the total contents of
radiocarbon on the Earth ..................... 689
17.4.4. Steady-state solution for radiocarbon
contents in both reservoirs on the Earth;
relation between probabilities of elements
exchange ..................................... 690
17.4.5. Non-stationary solution at initial
condition of stationary contents ............. 691
17.5. H-bombs explosions, generation of radiocarbon, and
estimation of parameters of the elements exchange
model; influence on global environment ............... 691
17.5.1. The reflection in radiocarbon production
rate of H-bomb explosions taking into
account vertical and planetary mixing ........ 691
17.5.2. The H-bomb explosions effect in radiocarbon
contents taking into account elements
exchange between planetary reservoirs ........ 692
17.5.3. Application to USSR and USA H-bombs
explosions in 1962; estimation of total
radiocarbon production ....................... 693
17.5.4. H-bomb explosions and parameters of 2-
reservoir model of planetary exchange of
elements on the Earth ........................ 694
17.5.5. Expected time variation of radiocarbon
contents in atmosphere and in ocean owing
to H-bomb explosions ......................... 694
17.6. The reflection of cosmic ray cyclic modulation in
radiocarbon contents in the frame of 2-reservoir
model of elements planetary exchange on the Earth .... 695
17.6.1. General solution for the planetary)
reservoir A .................................. 695
17.6.2. Very long-term and very short-term cyclic
modulation of radiocarbon content in the
atmosphere ................................... 696
17.6.3. The amplitude reducing and time lag in
cyclic variation of radiocarbon content in
the atmosphere as a function of CR
modulation frequency ......................... 697
17.6.4. Reflection of CR cyclic modulation in
radiocarbon contents in the reservoir F ...... 697
17.7. The reflection of CR burst from local supernova
explosion in radiocarbon contents in the frame of
2-reservoir model of elements exchange ............... 698
17.8. Radiocarbon contents in dated samples and planetary
elements exchange in the frame of 5-reservoir
model ................................................ 699
17.8.1. The basic equations for 5-reservoir model .... 699
17.8.2. The solution for the total radiocarbon
content on the Earth ......................... 700
17.8.3. The steady-state solution for the
5-reservoir model and estimation of the
probabilities of the planetary exchange
of elements .................................. 701
17.8.4. Non-stationary solution for the radiocarbon
5-reservoir model ............................ 703
17.9. A short review on the research of CR variations and
related phenomena in the past by radiocarbon
method ............................................... 705
17.9.1. Radiocarbon data ............................. 705
17.9.2. The radiocarbon method and CR variations
in the past, caused by long-time variations
of geomagnetic field ......................... 705
17.9.3. The radiocarbon method and grand solar
activity minima .............................. 707
17.9.4. The radiocarbon method and solar activity
cycles ....................................... 710
17.9.5. Radiocarbon and 10Be data related to
possible local supernova explosions
in the past .................................. 717
17.10.Summary and perspectives of radiocarbon method ....... 718
Chapter 18. Potential and Realized Applications of Cosmic
Ray Research in Science and Technology ............ 721
18.1. Possible CR applications in Meteorology and in
Service of great airports ............................ 721
18.1.1. The matter of the problem .................... 721
18.1.2. Generalized spectrograph method and using
CR data of different CR components ........... 721
18.2. Possible CR applications in Hydrology and
Agriculture .......................................... 723
18.2.1. Using small CR detectors for automatic
continuous measurements of snow mass in
vertical column over detector and
determining of total snow mass reserve
in river basins (for Hydrology) and on
the fields (for Agriculture) ................. 723
18.2.2. Possible CR applications for Agriculture:
using neutron counters for automatically
continue measurements of water contents
in soil by albedo neutrons generated
underground by CR ............................ 723
18.2.3. Possible using of underwater CR detectors
for automatically continuously measurements
of level of river, lake, sea, ocean .......... 724
18.2.4. Possible use of underground muon telescopes
for automatic monitoring of the condition
of different types of weirs .................. 724
18.3. Possible CR applications in research of atmospheric
electric field phenomenon ............................ 724
18.4. CR applications in Geology and Geophysical
Prospecting .......................................... 725
18.4.1. Peculiarities of secondary CR transport
through the ground ........................... 725
18.4.2. Use of multi-directional muon telescopes
inside tunnels, caves, streaks in mines ...... 726
18.4.3. Possible use of special neutron monitor for
underground searches ......................... 729
18.4.4. Use of special NM without lead for quick
determination of the quality of ore .......... 730
18.4.5. Use of special NM without lead for search
in old mines or in acting mines .............. 731
18.5. CR applications in Environmental Science ............. 731
18.5.1. Using cosmogenic isotope data for
estimation parameters of planetary mixing
and exchange of chemical elements ............ 731
18.5.2. CR applications for treating pollution of
the Earth atmosphere, water, snow, and
soils ........................................ 732
18.6. CR applications in Archeology ........................ 734
18.6.1. Using multidirectional muon telescope
inside pyramids or other historical
objects for search for some peculiarities
in the structure ............................. 734
18.6.2. The well known improvement of the
radiocarbon method for the dating of
important historical samples ................. 734
18.6.3. Possible use of special neutron monitor
without lead for searching some historical
samples in soil .............................. 734
18.7. Possible Forensic applications ....................... 734
18.7.1. Using radiocarbon method for dating of
samples important for criminal
investigations ............................... 734
18.7.2. Use of special neutron monitor without lead
in forensic science .......................... 736
18.7.3. Possible application of special neutron
monitor without lead for searching
cemeteries ................................... 736
18.8. Possible CR applications for Navigation .............. 736
18.9. CR data applications for the Physics of the Earth's
magnetosphere ........................................ 737
18.9.1. Use of CR spectrographic method for
continuous determination of magnetosphere
equatorial ring current's properties ......... 737
18.9.2. Using CR latitude surveys data for testing
magnetosphere models ......................... 738
18.10.CR data application for the Physics of Heliosphere ... 738
18.11.CR research and climate change: possible
applications ......................................... 738
18.12.CR research applications for space weather
monitoring and forecasting ........................... 739
18.13.Application of regular CR measurements by radio
balloons for environment monitoring of radioactive
clouds from nuclear explosions or nuclear plant
failures ............................................. 741
18.14.Possible application of CR research to the problem
of great earthquakes forecasting ..................... 743
18.14.1.CR research on extraterrestrial causes of
great earthquakes: neutron bursts from
the Earth's crust at new and full Moon ....... 743
18.14.2.CR research on extraterrestrial causes of
great earthquakes: crossing of the neutral
current sheet of IMF by the Earth and CR
daily variations ............................. 746
18.14.3.CR research on internal causes of great
earthquakes .................................. 748
18.15.Experience in the research of CR in the Earth's
atmosphere and underground: applications to CR
interactions with the Sun, planets, and other
solar system bodies .................................. 750
18.16.CR research applications to Human Health and
Medicine, to the Problem of Car and Train
Accidents ............................................ 751
18.16.1.Short historical review ...................... 751
18.16.2.Frequency of myocardial infarcts, brain
strokes, and car accident road traumas
in connection with CR Forbush-decreases ...... 751
18.16.3.In what days of CR Forbush decrease there
is sufficient influence on people health
and car road accidents? ...................... 753
18.16.4.The train accidents in connection with CR
Forbush decreases ............................ 754
18.16.5.The problem of the long-term variations of
the train accident frequency in comparison
with solar activity and CR intensity
variations ................................... 755
18.16.6.Long-term variations of the myocardial
infarctions, brain strokes, and train
accident frequency in connection with
sunspot number, CR intensity, tilt angle
and number of geomagnetic storms ............. 757
18.16.7.Discussion of obtained results and possible
causes of the human diseases connection
with CR intensity and other space weather
parameters ................................... 758
18.17.Application of CR research to the problem of
satellite malfunctions ............................... 760
18.17.1.Importance of the problem .................... 760
18.17.2.Data cleaning and formation of database ...... 760
18.17.3.Situations in October 1989 and April-May
1991 as examples of very high frequency of
satellite malfunctions ....................... 761
18.17.4.Comparison of malfunctions in high
(> 1000 km) and low (< 1000 km) altitude
satellites ................................... 762
18.17.5.Peculiarities of 'Kosmos' satellite
malfunctions ................................. 763
18.17.6.Seasonal variations of the number of
satellite malfunctions ....................... 764
18.17.7.Clusterization of satellite malfunctions ..... 765
18.17.8.On the connection of satellite malfunctions
with Cosmic Ray Activity index; possible
using of this index for forecasting .......... 766
18.17.9.Influence of proton and electron fluxes on
the satellite malfunction frequency in
dependence of the type of satellite orbit;
CR effects and peculiarities for
forecasting .................................. 766
Conclusion and Problems ....................................... 771
References .................................................... 775
Object Index .................................................. 835
Author Index .................................................. 841
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