Preface to the Second Edition .................................. xv
Preface to the First Edition ................................. xvii
Author ........................................................ xix
Chapter 1. Water Quality ....................................... 1
1.1. Defining Environmental Water Quality ...................... 1
1.1.1. Water-Use Classifications and Water Quality
Standards ......................................... 1
1.1.2. Water Quality Classifications and Standards
for Natural Waters ................................ 3
1.1.3. Setting Numerical Water Quality Standards ......... 4
1.1.4. Typical Water-Use Classifications ................. 4
1.1.4.1. Recreational ............................ 4
1.1.4.2. Aquatic Life ............................ 5
1.1.4.3. Agriculture ............................. 6
1.1.4.4. Domestic Water Supply ................... 6
1.1.4.5. Wetlands ................................ 6
1.1.4.6. Groundwater ............................. 6
1.1.5. Staying Up-to-Date with Standards and Other
Regulations ....................................... 7
1.2. Sources of Water Impurities ............................... 7
1.2.1. Natural Sources ................................... 8
1.2.2. Human-Caused Sources .............................. 8
1.3. Measuring Impurities ...................................... 9
1.3.1. What Impurities Are Present? ...................... 9
1.3.2. How Much of Each Impurity Is Present? ............. 9
1.3.3. Working with Concentrations ...................... 10
1.3.4. Moles and Equivalents ............................ 12
1.3.4.1. Working with Equivalent Weights ........ 16
1.3.5. Case History Example ............................. 20
1.3.6. How Do Impurities Influence Water Quality? ....... 21
Exercises ...................................................... 22
Chapter 2. Contaminant Behavior in the Environment: Basic
Principles ..................................................... 23
2.1. Behavior of Contaminants in Natural Waters ............... 23
2.1.1. Important Properties of Pollutants ............... 24
2.1.2. Important Properties of Water and Soil ........... 25
2.2. What Are the Fates of Different Pollutants? .............. 25
2.3. Processes That Remove Pollutants from Water .............. 26
2.3.1. Natural Attenuation .............................. 26
2.3.2. Transport Processes .............................. 26
2.3.3. Environmental Chemical Reactions ................. 27
2.3.4. Biological Processes ............................. 29
2.4. Major Contaminant Groups and Natural Pathways for
Their Removal from Water ................................. 29
2.4.1. Metals ........................................... 29
2.4.2. Chlorinated Pesticides ........................... 30
2.4.3. Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons ............... 30
2.4.4. Fuel Hydrocarbons ................................ 30
2.4.5. Inorganic Nonmetal Species ....................... 30
2.5. Chemical and Physical Reactions in the Water
Environment .............................................. 31
2.6. Partitioning Behavior of Pollutants ...................... 31
2.6.1. Partitioning from a Diesel Oil Spill ............. 32
2.7. Intermolecular Forces .................................... 34
2.7.1. Temperature Dependent Phase Changes .............. 34
2.7.2. Volatility, Solubility, and Sorption ............. 35
2.7.3. Predicting Relative Attractive Forces ............ 35
2.8. Origins of Intermolecular Forces: Electronegativities,
Chemical Bonds, and Molecular Geometry ................... 36
2.8.1. Chemical Bonds ................................... 36
2.8.2. Chemical Bond Dipole Moments ..................... 39
2.8.3. Molecular Geometry and Molecular Polarity ........ 40
2.8.4. Examples of Nonpolar Molecules ................... 41
2.8.5. Examples of Polar Molecules ...................... 42
2.8.6. The Nature of Intermolecular Attractions ......... 43
2.8.7. Comparative Strengths of Intermolecular
Attractions ...................................... 44
2.9. Solubility and Intermolecular Attractions ................ 47
Exercises ...................................................... 50
Chapter 3. Major Water Quality Parameters and Applications ..... 53
3.1. Interactions among Water Quality Parameters .............. 53
3.2. pH ....................................................... 54
3.2.1. Background ....................................... 54
3.2.2. Defining pH ...................................... 57
3.2.3. Acid-Base Reactions .............................. 57
3.2.4. Importance of pH ................................. 58
3.2.5. Measuring pH ..................................... 59
3.2.6. Water Quality Criteria and Standards for pH ...... 60
3.3. Oxidation-Reduction Potential ............................ 61
3.3.1. Background ....................................... 61
3.4. Carbon Dioxide, Bicarbonate, and Carbonate ............... 63
3.4.1. Background ....................................... 63
3.4.2. Solubility of CO2 in Water ....................... 63
3.4.3. Soil CO2 ......................................... 65
3.5. Acidity and Alkalinity ................................... 66
3.5.1. Background ....................................... 66
3.5.2. Acidity .......................................... 66
3.5.3. Alkalinity ....................................... 66
3.5.4. Importance of Alkalinity ......................... 67
3.5.5. Water Quality Criteria and Standards for
Alkalinity ....................................... 67
3.5.6. Calculating Alkalinity ........................... 68
3.5.7. Calculating Changes in Alkalinity, Carbonate,
and pH ........................................... 69
3.6. Hardness ................................................. 74
3.6.1. Background ....................................... 74
3.6.2. Calculating Hardness ............................. 74
3.6.3. Importance of Hardness ........................... 75
3.7. Dissolved Oxygen ......................................... 77
3.7.1. Background ....................................... 77
3.8. Biological Oxygen Demand and Chemical Oxygen Demand ...... 79
3.8.1. Background ....................................... 79
3.8.2. BOD5 ............................................. 79
3.8.3. BOD Calculation .................................. 79
3.8.4. COD Calculation .................................. 81
3.9. Nitrogen: Ammonia, Nitrite, and Nitrate .................. 81
3.9.1. Background ....................................... 81
3.9.2. Nitrogen Cycle ................................... 83
3.9.3. Ammonia/Ammonium Ion ............................. 83
3.9.4. Water Quality Criteria and Standards for
Ammonia .......................................... 85
3.9.5. Nitrite and Nitrate .............................. 85
3.9.6. Water Quality Criteria and Standards for
Nitrate .......................................... 86
3.9.7. Methods for Removing Nitrogen from Wastewater .... 87
3.9.7.1. Air-Stripping Ammonia .................. 87
3.9.7.2. Nitrification-Denitrification .......... 87
3.9.7.3. Breakpoint Chlorination ................ 88
3.9.7.4. Ammonium Ion Exchange .................. 90
3.9.7.5. Biosynthesis ........................... 90
3.10. Sulfide and Hydrogen Sulfide ............................. 90
3.10.1. Background ....................................... 90
3.10.1.1 Formation of H2S in Detention Ponds,
Wetlands, and Sewers ................... 91
3.10.1.2. Typical Water Quality Criteria and
Standards for H2S ...................... 92
3.10.2. Case Study ....................................... 92
3.10.2.1. Odors of Biological Origin in Water
(Mostly Hydrogen Sulfide and
Ammonia) ............................... 92
3.10.2.2. Environmental Chemistry of Hydrogen
Sulfide ................................ 93
3.10.2.3. Chemical Control of Odors .............. 94
3.10.2.4. pH control ............................. 95
3.10.2.5. Oxidation .............................. 96
3.10.2.6. Eliminate Reducing Conditions Caused
by Decomposing Organic Matter .......... 96
3.10.2.7. Sorption to Activated Charcoal ......... 96
3.11. Phosphorus ............................................... 96
3.11.1. Background ....................................... 96
3.11.2. Important Uses for Phosphorus .................... 97
3.11.3. Phosphorous Cycle ................................ 97
3.11.4. Mobility in the Environment ...................... 98
3.11.5. Phosphorous Compounds ........................... 101
3.11.6. Removal of Dissolved Phosphate .................. 102
3.12. Solids (Total, Suspended, and Dissolved) ................ 103
3.12.1. Background ...................................... 103
3.12.2. TDS and Salinity ................................ 104
3.12.3. Specific Conductivity and TDS ................... 105
3.12.4. TDS Test for Analytical Reliability ............. 106
3.13. Temperature ............................................. 106
Exercises ..................................................... 107
Reference ..................................................... 108
Chapter 4. Behavior of Metal Species in the Natural
Environment ................................................... 109
4.1. Metals in Water ......................................... 109
4.1.1. Background ...................................... 109
4.1.2. Mobility of Metals in the Water Environment ..... 111
4.1.3. General Behavior of Dissolved Metals in Water ... 112
4.1.3.1. Hydrolysis Reactions .................. 112
4.1.3.2. Hydrated Metals as Acids .............. 113
4.1.4. Influence of pH on the Solubility of Metals ..... 115
4.1.5. Influence of Redox Potential on the
Solubility of Metals ............................ 119
4.1.5.1. Redox-Sensitive Metals: Cr, Cu, Hg,
Fe, Mn ................................ 119
4.1.5.2. Redox-Insensitive Metals: Al, Ba,
Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn ........................ 119
4.1.5.3. Redox-Sensitive Metalloids: As, Se .... 120
4.2. Metal Water Quality Standards ........................... 120
4.3. Case Study 1 ............................................ 121
4.3.1. Treatment of Trace Metals in Urban Stormwater
Runoff .......................................... 121
4.3.2. Behavior of Common Stormwater Pollutants under
Oxidizing and Reducing Conditions ............... 123
4.4. Case Study 2 ............................................ 124
4.4.1. Acid Rock Drainage .............................. 124
4.4.1.1. Summary of Acid Formation in Acid
Rock Drainage ......................... 125
4.4.1.2. Non-iron Metal Sulfides Do Not
Generate Acidity ...................... 127
4.4.1.3. Acid-Base Potential of Soil ........... 127
4.4.1.4. Determining the Acid-Base Potential ... 127
4.5. Case Study 3 ............................................ 128
4.5.1. Identifying Metal Loss and Gain Mechanisms in
a Stream ........................................ 128
Exercises ..................................................... 131
References .................................................... 132
Chapter 5. Soil, Groundwater, and Subsurface Contamination .... 133
5.1. Nature of Soils ......................................... 133
5.1.1. Soil Formation .................................. 133
5.1.1.1. Physical Weathering ................... 133
5.1.1.2. Chemical Weathering ................... 134
5.1.1.3. Secondary Mineral Formation ........... 134
5.1.1.4. Roles of Plants and Soil Organisms .... 134
5.2. Soil Profiles ........................................... 135
5.2.1. Soil Horizons ................................... 135
5.2.2. Successive Steps in the Typical Development of
a Soil and Its Profile (Pedogenesis) ............ 136
5.3. Organic Matter in Soil .................................. 136
5.3.1. Humic Substances ................................ 137
5.3.2. Some Properties of Humic Materials .............. 138
5.3.2.1. Binding to Dissolved Species .......... 138
5.3.2.2. Light Absorption ...................... 138
5.4. Soil Zones .............................................. 139
5.4.1. Air in Soil ..................................... 140
5.5. Contaminants Become Distributed in Water, Soil,
and Air ................................................. 141
5.5.1. Volatilization .................................. 141
5.5.2. Sorption ........................................ 141
5.6. Partition Coefficients .................................. 144
5.6.1. Air-Water Partition Coefficient (Henry's Law) ... 145
5.6.2. Soil-Water Partition Coefficient ................ 149
5.6.3. Determining Kd Experimentally ................... 151
5.6.4. Role of Soil Organic Matter ..................... 153
5.6.5. Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient, Kow ........ 154
5.6.6. Estimating Kd Using Measured Solubility or
Kow ............................................. 156
5.7. Mobility of Contaminants in the Subsurface .............. 161
5.7.1. Retardation Factor .............................. 163
5.7.2. Effect of Biodegradation on Effective
Retardation Factor .............................. 163
5.7.3. A Model for Sorption and Retardation ............ 166
5.7.4. Soil Properties ................................. 167
5.8. Particulate Transport in Groundwater: Colloids .......... 169
5.8.1. Colloid Particle Size and Surface Area .......... 169
5.8.2. Particle Transport Properties ................... 170
5.8.3. Electrical Charges on Colloids and Soil
Surfaces ........................................ 170
5.8.3.1. Electrical Double Layer ............... 171
5.8.3.2. Adsorption and Coagulation ............ 171
5.9. Case Study: Clearing Muddy Ponds ........................ 172
5.9.1. Pilot Jar Tests ................................. 174
5.9.1.1. Jar Test Procedure with Alum
Coagulant ............................. 175
5.9.1.2. Jar Test Procedure with Gypsum
Coagulant ............................. 175
Exercises ..................................................... 176
References .................................................... 176
Chapter 6. General Properties of Nonaqueous Phase Liquids
and the Behavior of Light Nonaqueous Phase Liquids in the
Subsurface .................................................... 179
6.1. Types and Properties of Nonaqueous Phase Liquids ........ 179
6.2. General Characteristics of Petroleum Liquids, the Most
Common LNAPL ............................................ 180
6.2.1. Types of Petroleum Products ..................... 181
6.2.2. Gasoline ........................................ 182
6.2.3. Middle Distillates .............................. 183
6.2.4. Heavier Fuel Oils and Lubricating Oils .......... 183
6.3. Behavior of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Subsurface .... 185
6.3.1. Soil Zones and Pore Space ....................... 185
6.3.2. Partitioning of Light Nonaqueous Phase Liquids
in the Subsurface ............................... 186
6.3.3. Processes of Subsurface Migration ............... 186
6.3.4. Petroleum Mobility Through Soils ................ 187
6.3.5. Behavior of LNAPL in Soils and Groundwater ...... 187
6.3.6. Summary: Behavior of Spilled LNAPL .............. 189
6.3.7. Weathering of Subsurface Contaminants ........... 190
6.3.8. Petroleum Mobility and Solubikity ............... 190
6.4. Formation of Petroleum Contamination Plumes ............. 192
6.4.1. Dissolved Contaminant Plume ..................... 193
6.4.2. Vapor Contaminant Plume ......................... 195
6.5. Estimating the Amount of LNAPL Free Product in the
Subsurface .............................................. 195
6.5.1. How LNAPL Layer Thickness in the Subsurface
Affects LNAPL Layer Thickness in a Well ......... 199
6.5.1.1. Effect of Soil Texture on LNAPL in
the Subsurface and in Wells ........... 199
6.5.1.2. Effect of Water Table Fluctuations
on LNAPL in the Subsurface and in
Wells ................................. 200
6.5.1.3. Effect of Water Table Fluctuations
on LNAPL Measurements in Wells ........ 200
6.6. Estimating the Amount of Residual LNAPL Immobilized
in the Subsurface ....................................... 202
6.6.1. Subsurface Partitioning Loci of LNAPL Fuels ..... 203
6.7. Chemical Fingerprinting of LNAPLs ....................... 206
6.7.1. First Steps in Chemical Fingerprinting of Fuel
Hydrocarbons .................................... 207
6.7.2. Identifying Fuel Types .......................... 209
6.7.3. Age-Dating Fuel Spills .......................... 210
6.7.3.1. Gasoline .............................. 210
6.7.3.2. Changes in BTEX Ratios Measured in
Groundwater ........................... 211
6.7.3.3. Diesel Fuel ................. 213
6.8. Simulated Distillation Curves and Carbon Number
Distribution Curves ..................................... 215
References .................................................... 219
Chapter 7. Behavior of Dense Nonaqueous Phase Liquids
in the Subsurface .................................. 221
7.1. DNAPL Properties ........................................ 221
7.2. DNAPL Free Product Mobility ............................. 224
7.2.1. DNAPL in the Vadose Zone ........................ 224
7.2.2. DNAPL at the Water Table ........................ 230
7.2.3. DNAPL in the Saturated Zone ..................... 230
7.3. Testing for the Presence of DNAPL ....................... 233
7.3.1. Contaminant Concentrations in Groundwater and
Soil That Indicate the Proximity of DNAPL ....... 234
7.3.2. Calculation Method for Assessing Residual
DNAPL in Soil ................................... 234
7.4. Polychlorinated Biphenyls ............................... 239
7.4.1. Background ...................................... 239
7.4.2. Environmental Behavior .......................... 240
7.4.3. Analysis of PCBs ................................ 241
7.4.4. Case Study: Mistaken Identification of PCB
Compounds ....................................... 241
References .................................................... 242
Chapter 8. Biodegradation and Bioremediation of LNAPLs
and DNAPLs .................................................... 243
8.1. Biodegradation and Bioremediation ....................... 243
8.2. Basic Requirements for Biodegradation ................... 245
8.3. Biodegradation Processes ................................ 246
8.3.1. Case Study ...................................... 247
8.3.1.1. Passive (Intrinsic) Bioremediation
of Fuel LNAPLs: California Survey ..... 247
8.4. Natural Aerobic Biodegradation of NAPL Hydrocarbons ..... 250
8.5. Determining the Extent of Bioremediation of LNAPL ....... 252
8.5.1. Using Chemical Indicators of the Rate of
Intrinsic Bioremediation ........................ 252
8.5.2. Hydrocarbon Contaminant Indicator ............... 254
8.5.3. Electron Acceptor Indicators .................... 255
8.5.4. Dissolved Oxygen Indicator ...................... 256
8.5.5. Nitrate Plus Nitrite Denitrification
Indicator ....................................... 257
8.5.6. Metal Reduction Indicators: Manganese (IV) to
Manganese (II) and Iron (III) to Iron (II) ...... 258
8.5.7. Sulfate Reduction Indicator ..................... 259
8.5.8. Methanogenesis (Methane Formation) Indicator .... 259
8.5.9. Redox Potential and Alkalinity as
Biodegradation Indicators ....................... 260
8.5.9.1. Using Redox Potentials to Locate
Anaerobic Biodegradation within
the Plume ............................. 260
8.5.9.2. Using Alkalinity to Locate Anaerobic
Biodegradation within the Plume ....... 260
8.6. Bioremediation of Chlorinated DNAPLs .................... 261
8.6.1. Reductive Dechlorination of Chlorinated
Ethenes ......................................... 262
8.6.2. Reductive Dechlorination of Chlorinated
Ethanes ......................................... 264
8.6.3. Case Study: Using Biodegradation Pathways
for Source Identification ....................... 264
References .................................................... 265
Chapter 9. Behavior of Radionuclides in the Water and Soil
Environment ........................................ 267
9.1. Introduction ............................................ 267
9.2. Radionuclides ........................................... 267
9.2.1. A Few Basic Principles of Chemistry ............. 268
9.2.1.1. Matter and Atoms ...................... 268
9.2.1.2. Elements .............................. 269
9.2.2. Properties of an Atomic Nucleus ................. 270
9.2.2.1. Nuclear Notation ...................... 271
9.2.3. Isotopes ........................................ 272
9.2.4. Nuclear Forces .................................. 275
9.2.5. Quarks, Leptons, and Gluons ..................... 276
9.2.6. Radioactivity ................................... 277
9.2.6.1. α Emission ............................ 278
9.2.6.2. β Emission ............................ 278
9.2.6.3. γ Emission ............................ 278
9.2.7. Balancing Nuclear Equations ..................... 278
9.2.8. Rates of Radioactive Decay ...................... 281
9.2.8.1. Half-Life ............................. 282
9.2.9. Radioactive Decay Series ........................ 284
9.2.10. Naturally Occurring Radionuclides ............... 284
9.3. Emissions and Their Properties .......................... 286
9.4. Units of Radioactivity and Absorbed Radiation ........... 288
9.4.1. Activity ........................................ 290
9.4.2. Absorbed Dose ................................... 291
9.4.3. Dose Equivalent ................................. 291
9.4.4. Unit Conversion Tables .......................... 293
9.4.4.1. Converting between Units of Dose
Equivalent and Units of Activity
(Rems to Picocuries) .................. 293
9.5. Naturally Occurring Radioisotopes in the Environment .... 296
9.5.1. Case Study: Radionuclides in Public Water
Supplies ........................................ 297
9.5.2. Uranium ......................................... 300
9.5.2.1. Uranium Geology ....................... 301
9.5.2.2. Uranium in Water ...................... 302
9.5.3. Radium .......................................... 303
9.5.3.1. Radium in Soil ........................ 304
9.5.3.2. Radium in Water ....................... 305
9.5.4. Radon ........................................... 305
9.5.4.1. Health Issues ......................... 306
Exercises ..................................................... 307
References .................................................... 308
Chapter 10. Selected Topics in Environmental Chemistry ........ 311
10.1. Agricultural Water Quality .............................. 311
10.2. Sodium Adsorption Ratio ................................. 314
10.2.1. What SAR Values Are Acceptable? ................. 314
10.3. Deicing and Sanding of Roads: Controlling
Environmental Effects ................................... 317
10.3.1. Methods for Maintaining Winter Highway Safety ... 317
10.3.2. Antiskid Materials .............................. 317
10.3.2.1. Environmental Concerns of Antiskid
Materials ............................. 318
10.3.3. Chemical Deicers ................................ 318
10.3.3.1. Chemical Principles of Deicing ........ 318
10.3.3.2. Corrosivity ........................... 319
10.3.4. Environmental Concerns of Chemical Deicers ...... 319
10.3.5. Deicer Components and Their Potential
Environmental Effects ........................... 320
10.3.5.1. Chloride Ion .......................... 320
10.3.5.2. Sodium Ion ............................ 320
10.3.5.3. Calcium, Magnesium, and Potassium
Ions .................................. 321
10.3.5.4. Acetate ............................... 321
10.3.5.5. Impurities Present in Deicing
Materials ............................. 321
10.4. Drinking Water Treatment ................................ 321
10.4.1. Water Sources ................................... 322
10.4.2. Water Treatment ................................. 322
10.4.3. Basic Drinking Water Treatment .................. 323
10.4.3.1. Primary Settling ...................... 323
10.4.3.2. Aeration .............................. 323
10.4.3.3. Coagulation ........................... 324
10.4.3.4. Disinfection .......................... 324
10.4.3.5. Disinfection Procedures ............... 325
10.4.4. Disinfection By-Products and Disinfection
Residuals ....................................... 325
10.4.5. Strategies for Controlling Disinfection
By-Products ..................................... 326
10.4.6. Chlorine Disinfection Treatment ................. 326
10.4.6.1. Hypochlorite .......................... 330
10.4.6.2. Definitions ........................... 330
10.4.7. Drawbacks to Use of Chlorine: Disinfection
By-Products ..................................... 330
10.4.7.1. Trihalomethanes ....................... 330
10.4.7.2. Chlorinated Phenols ................... 331
10.4.8. Chloramines ..................................... 332
10.4.9. Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection Treatment ......... 333
10.4.10.Ozone Disinfection Treatment .................... 334
10.4.10.1. Ozone DBPs ........................... 335
10.4.11.Potassium Permanganate .......................... 336
10.4.11.1.Peroxone (Ozone Plus
Hydrogen Peroxide) .................... 336
10.4.11.2.Ultraviolet Disinfection Treatment .... 336
10.4.11.3.Membrane Filtration Water Treatment ... 337
10.5. Ion Exchange ............................................ 340
10.5.1. Why Do Solids in Nature Carry a Surface
Charge? ......................................... 341
10.5.2. Cation- and Anion-Exchange Capacity (CEC) ....... 342
10.5.3. Exchangeable Bases: Percent Base Saturation ..... 343
10.5.4. CEC in Clays and Organic Matter ................. 344
10.5.4.1. CEC in Clays .......................... 344
10.5.4.2. CEC in Organic Matter ................. 345
10.5.5. Rates of Cation Exchange ........................ 345
10.6. Indicators of Fecal Contamination: Coliform and
Streptococci Bacteria ................................... 346
10.6.1. Background ...................................... 346
10.6.2. Total Conforms .................................. 347
10.6.3. Fecal Conforms .................................. 347
10.6.4. Escherichia coli ................................ 347
10.6.5. Fecal Streptococci .............................. 348
10.6.6. Enterococci ..................................... 348
10.7. Municipal Wastewater Reuse: The Movement and Fate
of Microbial Pathogens .................................. 348
10.7.1. Pathogens in Treated Wastewater ................. 348
10.7.2. Transport and Inactivation of Viruses in Soils
and Groundwater ................................. 350
10.8. Oil and Grease .......................................... 351
10.8.1. Oil and Grease Analysis ......................... 351
10.8.2. Silica Gel Treatment ............................ 352
10.9. Quality Assurance and Quality Control in Environmental
Sampling ................................................ 352
10.9.1. QA/QC Has Different Field and Laboratory
Components ...................................... 352
10.9.2. Essential Components of Field QA/QC ............. 353
10.9.2.1. Sample Collection ..................... 353
10.9.3. Field Sample Set ................................ 354
10.9.3.1. Quality Control Samples ............... 354
10.9.3.2. Blank Sample Requirements ............. 354
10.9.3.3. Field Duplicates and Spikes ........... 355
10.9.3.4. Understanding Laboratory Reported
Results ............................... 355
10.10.Case Study: Water Quality Profile of Groundwater
in Coal-Bed Methane Formations .......................... 358
10.10.1.Geochemical Explanation for the Stiff
Patterns ........................................ 360
10.10.1.1.Bicarbonate Anion Increase ............ 361
10.10.1.2.Calcium and Magnesium Cation
Decrease .............................. 361
10.10.1.3.Sodium Cation May Increase ............ 361
10.10.1.4.Sulfate Anion Decrease ................ 362
References .................................................... 362
Appendix A. A Selective Dictionary of Water Quality
Parameters and Pollutants ..................................... 365
A.l. Introduction ............................................ 365
A.1.1. Water Quality Inorganic Parameters: Classified
by Abundance .................................... 365
A.2. Alphabetical Listing of Chemical and Physical Water
Quality Parameters and Pollutants ....................... 366
Answers to Selected Chapter Exercises ......................... 411
Index ......................................................... 423
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