Preface ......................................................... V
Overview .................................................... XVIII
List of Contributors .......................................... XXI
Editoral Board ............................................. XXVIII
Part IV Nonmetals .......................................... 1249
1 Boron .................................................... 1251
Forrest H. Nielsen
1.1 Introduction ............................................. 1251
1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 1252
1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................... 1252
1.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................. 1252
1.3 Sources, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste Products, and
Recycling ................................................ 1253
1.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ......................................... 1254
1.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination in Plants, Animals, and Humans ............... 1255
1.5.1 Plants ............................................. 1255
1.5.2 Animals and Humans ................................. 1255
1.6 Effects on Plants, Animals and Humans .................... 1256
1.6.1 Beneficial Effects in Plants ....................... 1256
1.6.2 Toxic Effects in Plants ............................ 1256
1.6.3 Beneficial Effects in Animals and Humans ........... 1257
1.6.4 Toxicological Effects in Animals and Humans ........ 1258
1.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 1258
2 Nitrogen ................................................. 1261
C. Grant Kowalenko
2.1 Introduction ............................................. 1261
2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 1261
2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................... 1261
2.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................. 1262
2.3 Sources, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste Products, and
Recycling ................................................ 1263
2.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ......................................... 1265
2.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination in Plants, Animals, and Humans ............... 1266
2.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ................... 1266
2.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 1267
3 Silicon .................................................. 1273
Patrick C. D'Haese, Ludwig V. Lamberts and Marc E. De Broe
3.1 Introduction ............................................. 1273
3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 1273
3.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................... 1274
3.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................. 1274
3.2.2.1 Sampling ................................... 1274
3.2.2.2 Techniques for the Determination of
Silicon .................................... 1275
3.3 Sources, Important Compounds, and Uses ................... 1277
3.4 Distribution in The Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ......................................... 1278
3.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination in Plants, Animals, and Humans ............... 1279
3.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ................... 1279
3.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 1281
4 Phosphorus ............................................... 1285
A. Sapek and B. Sapek
4.1 Introduction ............................................. 1285
4.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 1286
4.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................... 1286
4.2.2 Analytical Methods (see also Part V, Chapter 2) .... 1286
4.2.2.1 Colorimetric Techniques .................... 1286
4.2.2.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma-tomic Emission
Spectrometry (ICP-ES) ...................... 1287
4.3 Sources, Important Compounds, and Use .................... 1287
4.4 Phosphorus in the Natural Environment .................... 1287
4.5 Anthropogenic Impact on the Phosphorus Cycle ............. 1288
4.5.1 Phosphorus in Soils ................................ 1288
4.5.1.1 Phosphorus Losses from Soils to Water ...... 1290
4.5.2 Phosphorus in Plants ............................... 1290
4.5.3 Phosphorus in Animals .............................. 1292
4.5.4 Phosphorus in Food and Wastes ...................... 1292
4.6 Surface Water Eutrophication ............................. 1294
5 Sulfur ................................................... 1297
Winfried Arnhold and Markus Stoeppler
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 1297
5.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods ................................................... 1297
5.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................... 1297
5.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................. 1298
5.2.2.1 Elemental Analysis ......................... 1298
5.2.2.2 Species Analysis ........................... 1299
5.2.2.3 Quality Control/Quality Assessment ......... 1300
5.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling .................................. 1300
5.3.1 Sources and Production ............................. 1300
5.3.2 Important Compounds, Uses, Waste Products, and
Recycling .......................................... 1301
5.4 Distribution in the Environment, In Foods and Living
Organisms ................................................ 1303
5.4.1 The Sulfur Cycle and Air Pollution ................. 1303
5.4.1.1 Sulfur dioxide ............................. 1303
5.4.2 Sulfur in Waters, Soils, Plants, and Nutrition ..... 1304
5.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism, and Elimination in Humans .................... 1305
5.6 Effects of Sulfur on Animals and Humans .................. 1306
5.6.1 Effects of High Dietary Levels of Sulfur in Farm
Animals ............................................ 1306
5.6.2 Effects of Sulfur on Humans ........................ 1309
5.6.2.1 Therapeutic Effects of Sulfur .............. 1309
5.6.3 Toxic Effects of Sulfur ............................ 1311
5.6.3.1 Inhalation Exposure ........................ 1312
5.6.3.2 Oral Exposure .............................. 1312
5.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 1313
6 Arsenic .................................................. 1321
Markus Stoeppler
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 1321
6.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 1322
6.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................... 1322
6.2.1.1 Arsenic Compounds .......................... 1322
6.2.3 Analytical Methods ................................. 1324
6.2.3.1 Determination of Total Arsenic
(see also Part V, Chapter 2) ............... 1324
6.2.3.2 Decomposition .............................. 1324
6.2.3.3 Speciation Methods (see Part V,
Chapter 3) ................................. 1325
6.2.3.4 Quality Control/Quality Assurance .......... 1326
6.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, and
Waste Products ........................................... 1327
6.3.1 Occurrence and Production .......................... 1327
6.3.2 Important Compounds and Their Uses ................. 1328
6.3.2.1 Forestry ................................... 1328
6.3.2.2 Agriculture ................................ 1328
6.3.2.3 Industry ................................... 1329
6.3.2.4 Medicine ................................... 1329
6.3.3 Waste Products and Disposal, Replacement ........... 1329
6.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms: the Arsenic Cycle ...................... 1330
6.4.1 Emissions into the Atmosphere
(see also Part I, Chapter 2) ....................... 1330
6.4.2 Arsenic in Soil, Water, and Air .................... 1331
6.4.2.1 Soils ...................................... 1331
6.4.2.2 Oceans, Inland Waters, and Fresh Waters .... 1332
6.4.2.3 Air ........................................ 1333
6.4.3 Plants, Animals, Food Chain, and Humans ............ 1333
6.4.3.1 Terrestrial and Marine Flora and Fauna ..... 1333
6.4.3.2 Food Chain, Arsenic Intake from Food ....... 1334
6.4.3.3 Humans ..................................... 1336
6.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and
Humans ................................................... 1337
6.5.1 Terrestrial and Marine Flora and Fauna ............. 1337
6.5.2 Humans ............................................. 1340
6.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ................... 1342
6.6.1 Effects on Microorganisms and Plants ............... 1342
6.6.2 Medicine and Similar Fields, Deficiency/
Essentiality ....................................... 1343
6.6.3 Acute Effects on Animals and Humans ................ 1345
6.6.3.1 Animal Data ................................ 1345
6.6.3.2 Human Data (see also Graeme and
Pollack 1998, Drasch 2003) ................. 1346
6.6.4 Chronic Effects on Animals and Humans .............. 1347
6.6.4.1 Animal Data ................................ 1347
6.6.4.2 Human Data (see also Wong et al. 1998) ..... 1347
6.6.5 Mutagenic Effects .................................. 1348
6.6.6 Carcinogenic Effects ............................... 1349
6.6.7 Teratogenic Effects ................................ 1351
6.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 1352
7 Selenium ................................................. 1365
Gerhard Norbert Schrauzer
7.1 Introduction ............................................. 1365
7.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 1365
7.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................... 1365
7.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................. 1366
7.3 Sources, Important Compounds, Uses, and Waste Products ... 1367
7.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Food, and in Living
Organisms ................................................ 1369
7.4.1 Air (Emissions and Quality) ........................ 1369
7.4.2 Water Quality ...................................... 1372
7.4.3 Soil Selenium Levels ............................... 1373
7.4.4 Food Chain, Plants, Animals, and Humans ............ 1374
7.4.4.1 Sources of dietary selenium ................ 1374
7.4.4.2 Selenium in Human Organs and Tissues ....... 1378
7.4.4.3 Human Selenium Requirements ................ 1380
7.4.4.4 The "Tolerable Upper Intake" Levels ........ 1380
7.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, and Elimination in
Plants, Animals, and Humans .............................. 1381
7.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans
(see also Section 7.6.6) ................................. 1383
7.6.1 Effects on Microorganisms and Plants ............... 1383
7.6.2 Miscellaneous Biochemical Effects .................. 1383
7.6.3 Selenium Deficiency in Animals
(see also Section 7.4.4) ........................... 1384
7.6.4 Selenium Deficiency in Humans ...................... 1384
7.6.5 Toxic Effects on Animals ........................... 1387
7.6.6 Toxic Effects on Humans ............................ 1387
7.6.7 Mutagenic, Carcinogenic, and Teratogenic Effects ... 1388
7.6.8 Indicators of Selenium Status ...................... 1389
7.6.9 Anticarcinogenic Properties ........................ 1389
7.6.9.1 Experimental Studies and Proposed
Mechanisms of Action ....................... 1389
7.6.9.2 Case-ontrol and Correlational Studies ...... 1391
7.6.9.3 Human Intervention Trials .................. 1391
7.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 1392
8 Tellurium ................................................ 1407
Ryusuke Kobayashi
8.1 Introduction ............................................. 1407
8.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 1407
8.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................... 1407
8.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................. 1408
8.3 Sources, Important Compounds, and Uses ................... 1408
8.3.1 Sources and Production ............................. 1408
8.3.2 Important Compounds ................................ 1408
8.3.3 Technical Uses ..................................... 1410
8.4 Distribution in the Environment and in Foods ............. 1410
8.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism, and
Elimination in Humans .................................... 1410
8.5.1 Uptake ............................................. 1410
8.5.2 Absorption ......................................... 1410
8.5.3 Distribution ....................................... 1411
8.5.4 Metabolism and Elimination ......................... 1412
8.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ................... 1412
8.7 Hazard Evaluation ........................................ 1413
9 The Halogens ............................................. 1415
9.1 Fluorine ................................................. 1415
Vadim V. Ermakov
9.1.1 Introduction ....................................... 1415
9.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................ 1415
9.1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ........... 1415
9.1.2.2 Analytical Methods ......................... 1415
9.1.3 Sources, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ............................. 1416
9.1.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ................................... 1416
9.1.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism
and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and Humans ..... 1417
9.1.6 Effect on Plants, Animals, and Humans .............. 1418
9.1.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ...... 1420
9.2 Chlorine ................................................. 1423
Manfred Coenen
9.2.1 Introduction ....................................... 1423
9.2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................ 1423
9.2.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling ...................... 1424
9.2.4 Distribution in the Environment and in Foods ....... 1427
9.2.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
and Metabolism ..................................... 1429
9.2.6 Elimination in Plants, Animals, and Humans ......... 1436
9.2.7 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ............. 1436
9.2.8 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ...... 1438
9.3 Bromine .................................................. 1445
Stanislav Pavelka
9.3.1 Introduction ....................................... 1445
9.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................ 1445
9.3.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ........... 1445
9.3.2.2 Analytical Methods ......................... 1446
9.3.3 Sources, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ............................ 1446
9.3.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ................................... 1447
9.3.4.1 Environment ................................ 1447
9.3.4.2 Bromide Residues in Foodstuffs ............. 1447
9.3.4.3 Living Organisms ........................... 1448
9.3.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism
and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and Humans ..... 1448
9.3.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ............. 1449
9.3.6.1 Deficiency Symptoms ........................ 1449
9.3.6.2 Effects of Organic and Inorganic Bromides
on Animals ................................. 1450
9.3.6.3 Effects of Organic and Inorganic Bromides
on Humans .................................. 1451
9.3.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ...... 1452
9.4 Iodine ................................................... 1457
Manfred K. Anke
9.4.1 Introduction ....................................... 1457
9.4.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................ 1458
9.4.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
and Waste Products ................................. 1459
9.4.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods and in
Living Organisms ................................... 1461
9.4.4.1 Rocks, Soils, and Water .................... 1461
9.4.4.2 Flora ...................................... 1462
9.4.4.3 Fauna ...................................... 1465
9.4.4.4 Foodstuffs ................................. 1466
9.4.5 Uptake, Resorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals,
and Humans ......................................... 1469
9.4.5.1 Uptake ..................................... 1469
9.4.5.2 Absorption ................................. 1472
9.4.5.3 Transport and Distribution ................. 1472
9.4.5.4 Metabolism ................................. 1473
9.4.5.5 Excretion .................................. 1474
9.4.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ............. 1476
9.4.6.1 Plants ..................................... 1476
9.4.6.2 Animals .................................... 1476
9.4.6.3 Humans ..................................... 1484
9.4.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ...... 1485
Part V Particular Aspects ................................. 1497
1 Standards and Regulations Regarding Metals and Their
Compounds in Environmental Materials, Drinking Water,
Food, Feeding-stuff Consumer Products, and Other
Materials ................................................ 1499
Jutta Begerow, Gerd Crössmann, Ulrich Ewers and Markus Finck
1.1 Introduction ............................................. 1499
1.2 Standards Referring to Total Human Exposure to Metals
and Metalloids ........................................... 1499
1.2.1 Recommendations of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert
Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) ................ 1500
1.2.2 Oral RfDs proposed by the US Environmental
Protection Agency .................................. 1501
1.2.3 The Concept of Tolerable Absorbed Dose (Germany) ... 1501
1.2.4 Standards for Human Biological Monitoring .......... 1502
1.2.4.1 Standards for Human Biological Monitoring
Recommended by the German Commission on
Human Biological Monitoring ................ 1503
1.2.4.2 Standards for Human Biological Monitoring
Recommended by other Institutions and
Organizations .............................. 1505
1.3 Standards for Air Quality ................................ 1505
1.3.1 Standards for Emission Control ..................... 1505
1.3.1.1 National Regulations ....................... 1505
1.3.1.2 European and International Regulations ..... 1506
1.3.2 Ambient Air Quality Guidelines and Standards ....... 1507
1.3.2.1 European and National Standards and
Guidelines ................................. 1507
1.3.2.2 International Standards and Guidelines ..... 1508
1.3.3 Deposition ......................................... 1509
1.4 Standards for Drinking Water Quality ..................... 1509
1.4.1 Introduction ....................................... 1509
1.4.2 European Community ................................. 1509
1.4.3 US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ........... 1510
1.4.4 World Health Organization (WHO) .................... 1512
1.5 Standards for Food Quality ............................... 1511
1.6 Standards for Feedstuff Quality .......................... 1512
1.7 Standards for Soil Quality ............................... 1523
1.7.1 Germany ............................................ 1526
1.7.2 Switzerland ........................................ 1528
1.8 Standards for Mineral Fertilizer and Sewage Sludge ....... 1528
1.9 Standards relating to Product Safety containing Toxic
Elements ................................................. 1519
1.9.1 Food Contact Materials ............................. 1529
1.9.2 EU-egulation ....................................... 1529
1.9.3 Materials in Contact with Human Skin or Mucous
Membranes .......................................... 1521
1.9.3.1 Nickel in Jewelry and Personal Objects in
Contact with the Skin .............................. 1522
1.9.2.2 Safety of Toys ............................. 1522
2 Analytical Chemistry of Element Determination
(Non-nuclear and Nuclear) ................................ 1525
Milan Ihnat
2.1 Introduction ............................................. 1525
2.2 The Analytical Method .................................... 1526
2.2.1 Books on Analytical Chemistry ...................... 1528
2.2.2 Reviews on Analytical Chemistry .................... 1531
2.3 Sampling and Sample Treatment ............................ 1532
2.3.1 Sample Collection, Storage and Pretreatment ........ 1532
2.3.1.1 Presampling ................................ 1532
2.3.1.2 Sample Collection and Storage .............. 1532
2.2.1.1 Sample Preparation (Pretreatment) .......... 1534
2.3.2 Sample Treatment ................................... 1536
2.4 Separation and Concentration ............................. 1542
2.5 Determinative Methods .................................... 1544
2.5.1 Classification of Determinative Methods ............ 1544
2.5.2 Determinative Method Performance ................... 1545
2.5.2.1 Method Performance: General ................ 1545
2.5.2.2 Method Performance: Detection Limits ....... 1548
2.5.3 Determinative Methods .............................. 1553
2.5.3.1 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
(Optical Atomic Spectrometry) ............. 1554
2.5.3.2 Flame Atomic Emission Spectrometry
(Optical Atomic Spectrometry) ............. 1570
2.5.3.3 Arc/Spark Atomic Emission Spectrometry
(Optical Atomic Spectrometry) ............. 1571
2.5.3.4 Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic
Emission Spectrometry (Optical Atomic
Spectrometry) ............................. 1573
2.5.3.5 Nuclear Activation Analysis ............... 1577
2.5.3.6 Electrochemistry .......................... 1584
2.5.3.7 X-ay Fluorescence Spectrometry ............ 1589
2.5.3.8 Mass Spectrometry ......................... 1594
2.5.3.9 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometry .............................. 1597
2.5.3.10 Light Absorption Spectrometry ............. 1600
2.5.3.11 Chromatography ............................ 1603
2.5.3.12 Combustion Elemental Analysis ............. 1604
2.5.3.13 Other Methods ............................. 1605
2.5.4 Automation ......................................... 1605
2.6 Data Quality Assurance ................................... 1607
3 Element Speciation Analysis .............................. 1643
Bernhard Michalke
3.1 Introduction ............................................. 1643
3.1.1 Definitions of Terms Related to Speciation ......... 1643
3.1.2 Examples of Different Chemical Species ............. 1644
3.1.3 Importance of Element Speciation Analysis .......... 1645
3.2 Speciation Analysis: Basic Steps ......................... 1646
3.2.1 Sampling: General Problems ......................... 1646
3.2.1.1 Water ...................................... 1647
3.2.1.2 Biological Samples ......................... 1647
3.2.1.3 Soil and Sediments ......................... 1647
3.2.2 Sample Storage and Processing ...................... 1647
3.2.2.1 Water ...................................... 1648
3.2.2.2 Biological Samples ......................... 1648
3.2.2.3 Soil and Sediments ......................... 1650
3.3 Speciation Approaches: Direct Methods or Combined
(Hyphenated) Techniques .................................. 1652
3.3.1 Combined Techniques of Separation and Detection
Methods: Hyphenated Systems ........................ 1653
3.3.1.1 Separation Techniques ...................... 1653
3.3.1.2 Investigations on Interfacing LC to
ICP-S ...................................... 1656
3.3.1.3 Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) ............. 1658
3.3.1.4 Gas Chromatography (GC) .................... 1660
3.3.1.5 Element-Selective Detection ................ 1660
3.4 Quality Control in Speciation ............................ 1664
3.4.1 Basic Remarks ...................................... 1664
3.4.2 General Aspects of Quality Control ................. 1664
3.4.2.1 Calibration ................................ 1664
3.4.2.2 Traceability ............................... 1665
3.4.2.3 Method validation .......................... 1665
3.4.2.4 Quantitative speciation .................... 1665
3.4.3 Further Quality Control Strategies and
Precautions ........................................ 1666
3.4.4 Orthogonal Analytical Concepts ..................... 1668
3.5 Conclusions .............................................. 1668
Part VI Supplementary Information
Glossary ..................................................... 1677
Tables and other Information ................................. 1695
Index ........................................................ 1703
Overview
Volume 1: General Aspects
Part I Element Distribution in the Environment ............... 1
1 The Composition of Earth's Upper Crust, Natural
Cycles of Elements, Natural Resources ................. 3
2 Chemical Compounds in the Atmosphere ................. 17
3 Deposition of Acids, Elements, and their Compounds ... 47
4 Macro Elements in Soil ............................... 67
5 Trace Elements and Compounds in Soil ................. 79
6 Transfer of Macro, Trace and Ultratrace Elements
in the Food Chain ................................... 101
7 Elements and Elemental Compounds in Waters and
the Aquatic Food Chain .............................. 127
8 Elements and Compounds in Sediments ................. 149
9 Elements and Compounds in Waste Materials ........... 163
10 Elements and Compounds on Abandoned Industrial
Sites ............................................... 199
11 Elements and Their Compounds in Indoor
Environments ........................................ 215
12 From the Biological System of the Elements to
Biomonitoring ....................................... 235
Part II Effects of Elements in the Food Chain and on Human
Health .............................................. 255
1 Essential and Toxic Effects of Elements on
Microorganisms ...................................... 257
2 Essential and Toxic Effects of Macro- Trace and
Ultratrace Elements for Higher Plants,
Interactions and Requirement ........................ 277
3 Essential and Toxic Effects of Macro, Trace, and
Ultratrace Elements in the Nutrition of Animals ..... 305
4 Essential and Toxic Effects of Macro, Trace, and
Ultratrace Elements in the Nutrition of Man ......... 343
5 Metal and Ceramic Implants .......................... 369
6 Metallothioneins .................................... 391
7 Influence of Metals on DNA .......................... 401
8 Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Metals and Metal
Compounds for Man ................................... 415
9 Mutagenicity ........................................ 433
10 Ecogenetics ......................................... 459
Volume 2: Metals and Their Compounds
Part III Metals and their Compounds .......................... 477
1 Alkali Metals ....................................... 479
2 The Alkaline Earths ................................. 575
3 Aluminum ............................................ 635
4 Antimony ............................................ 659
5 Bismuth ............................................. 671
6 Cadmium ............................................. 689
7 Chromium ............................................ 709
8 The Copper Group .................................... 731
9 Gallium ............................................. 775
10 Germanium ........................................... 787
11 Hafnium ............................................. 795
12 Indium .............................................. 801
13 The Iron Group ...................................... 811
14 The Lanthanides ..................................... 867
15 Lead ................................................ 879
16 Manganese ........................................... 901
17 Mercury ............................................. 931
18 Molybdenum ......................................... 1007
19 Niobium (Nb) (Columbium) ........................... 1039
20 Platinum-roup Metals ............................... 1047
21 Tantalum ........................................... 1087
22 Thallium ........................................... 1099
23 Tin ................................................ 1113
24 Titanium ........................................... 1125
25 Tungsten ........................................... 1141
26 Actinides and Decay Products ....................... 1147
27 Vanadium ........................................... 1171
28 Yttrium ............................................ 1193
29 Zinc ............................................... 1203
30 Zirconium .......................................... 1241
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