Preface ......................................................... V
Overview ..................................................... XXIX
List of Contributors ......................................... XXXV
Editoral Board ............................................... XLII
Part III Metals and their Compounds .......................... 477
1 Alkali Metals ............................................. 479
1.1 Lithium ................................................... 479
Ulrich Schafer
1.1.1 Introduction ........................................ 479
1.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 480
1.1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............ 480
1.1.2.2 Analytical Methods .......................... 481
1.1.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products and Recycling ........................ 481
1.1.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms .................................... 485
1.1.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants,
Animals, and Humans ................................. 487
1.1.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .............. 488
1.1.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 491
1.2 Sodium .................................................... 497
Manfred K. Anke
1.2.1 Introduction ........................................ 497
1.2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods .............................................. 498
1.2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............. 498
1.2.2.2 Analytical Methods ........................... 498
1.2.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, and
Uses ................................................ 498
1.2.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms .................................... 499
1.2.4.1 Distribution in the Environment ............. 499
1.2.4.2 Flora ....................................... 500
1.2.4.3 Fauna ....................................... 501
1.2.4.4 Foods and Beverages ......................... 502
1.2.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Animals and Man ....... 503
1.2.5.1 Intake ...................................... 503
1.2.5.2 Absorption, Transportation, and
Distribution ................................ 505
1.2.5.3 Excretion, Apparent Absorption Rate, and
Balance ..................................... 507
1.2.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .............. 508
1.2.6.1 Essentiality and Toxicity for Plants ........ 508
1.2.6.2 Essentiality and Toxicity for Animals ....... 509
1.2.6.3 Essentiality and Toxicity for Man ........... 512
1.2.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 515
1.3 Potassium ................................................. 521
Manfred K. Anke
1.3.1 Introduction ........................................ 521
1.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 522
1.3.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............ 522
1.3.2.2 Analytical Methods .......................... 522
1.3.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling ....................... 523
1.3.3.1 Sources and Production ...................... 523
1.3.3.2 Important Compounds and Uses ................ 524
1.3.3.3 Waste Products and Recycling ................ 524
1.3.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Food and in
Living Organisms .................................... 524
1.3.4.1 Rocks, Soil, and Water ...................... 524
1.3.4.2 Flora ....................................... 525
1.3.4.3 Fauna ....................................... 527
1.3.4.4 Food ........................................ 529
1.3.5 Intake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination .......................... 532
1.3.5.1 Intake ...................................... 532
1.3.5.2 Absorption .................................. 534
1.3.5.3 Transport and Distribution .................. 534
1.3.5.4 Excretion ................................... 535
1.3.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .............. 536
1.3.6.1 Effects on Plants ........................... 536
1.3.6.2 Effects on Animals and Man .................. 537
1.3.6.3 Toxicity in Animals and Man ................. 541
1.3.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentration ........ 542
1.4 Rubidium .................................................. 547
Manfred K. Anke and Ljubomir Angelov
1.4.1 Introduction ........................................ 547
1.4.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 547
1.4.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling ....................... 548
1.4.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods and
Living Organisms .................................... 549
1.4.4.1 Distribution in the Environment ............. 549
1.4.4.2 Flora ....................................... 549
1.4.4.3 Vegetable Food .............................. 551
1.4.4.4 Fauna ....................................... 551
1.4.4.5 Animal Food ................................. 552
1.4.4.6 Beverages ................................... 553
1.4.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Animal and Man ........ 553
1.4.5.1 Intake ...................................... 553
1.4.5.2 Absorption, Transportation, and
Distribution ................................ 555
1.4.5.3 Metabolism, Excretion, Apparent Absorption
Rate, and Balance ........................... 556
1.4.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .............. 556
1.4.6.1 Flora, Essentiality, and Toxicity ........... 556
1.4.6.2 Essentiality in Animals and Man ............. 557
1.4.6.3 Pharmacological Effects and Toxicity in
Animals and Man ............................. 559
1.4.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 560
1.5 Cesium .................................................... 565
H. Hecht
1.5.1 Introduction ........................................ 565
1.5.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 565
1.5.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, and
Uses ................................................ 566
1.5.4 Distribution in Environment and Foods ............... 566
1.5.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals and
Humans .............................................. 567
1.5.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .............. 568
1.5.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 568
1.5.8 Radiocesium ......................................... 569
2 The Alkaline Earths ....................................... 575
2.1 Beryllium ................................................. 575
Milton D. Rossman
2.1.1 Introduction ........................................ 575
2.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 575
2.1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............ 575
2.1.2.2 Analytical methods .......................... 575
2.1.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling ....................... 577
2.1.3.1 Occurrence .................................. 577
2.1.3.2 Production, Use, and Recycling .............. 577
2.1.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms .................................... 578
2.1.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination in Plants, Animals, and Humans .......... 578
2.1.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .............. 579
2.1.6.1 Effects on Plants ........................... 579
2.1.6.2 Oral Uptake by Animals and Humans ........... 579
2.1.6.3 Inhalation by Animals and Humans ............ 579
2.1.6.4 Skin Exposure of Animals and Humans ......... 580
2.1.6.5 Mutagenic and Carcinogenic Effects .......... 580
2.1.6.6 Immunologic Effects ......................... 580
2.1.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 583
2.2 Magnesium ................................................. 587
Jürgen Vormann
2.2.1 Introduction ........................................ 587
2.2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 587
2.2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............ 587
2.2.2.2 Analytical Methods .......................... 588
2.2.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products and Recycling ........................ 588
2.2.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms .................................... 589
2.2.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination in Plants, Animals, and Humans .......... 589
2.2.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .............. 591
2.2.6.1 Functions of Magnesium ...................... 592
2.2.6.2 Magnesium Deficiency ........................ 592
2.2.6.3 Magnesium Therapy ........................... 594
2.2.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 595
2.3 Calcium ................................................... 599
Meinrad Peterlik and Markus Stoeppler
2.3.1 Introduction ........................................ 599
2.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 599
2.3.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............ 599
2.3.2.2 Analytical Methods .......................... 600
2.3.2.3 Quality Control/Quality Assessment .......... 600
2.3.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products and Recycling ........................ 601
2.3.3.1 Sources ..................................... 601
2.3.3.2 Production and Uses ......................... 601
2.3.3.3 Important Compounds and their Uses .......... 601
2.3.3.4 Waste Products and Recycling ................ 604
2.3.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods and in
Living Organisms .................................... 604
2.3.4.1 Environment ................................. 604
2.3.4.2 Food ........................................ 605
2.3.4.3 Living Organisms ............................ 605
2.3.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Animals and Humans .... 606
2.3.5.1 Regulation of Calcium Homeostasis ........... 606
2.3.5.2 Calcium Absorption and Excretion ............ 607
2.3.5.3 Calcium Requirements of Humans and
Animals ..................................... 608
2.3.6 Effects on Humans ................................... 609
2.3.6.1 Calcium Malnutrition and Chronic Diseases ... 609
2.3.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 612
2.4 Strontium ................................................. 619
Mathias Seifert
2.4.1 Introduction ........................................ 619
2.4.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 619
2.4.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............ 619
2.4.2.2 Analytical Methods .......................... 620
2.4.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products and Recycling ........................ 620
2.4.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms .................................... 621
2.4.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination in Plants, Animals, and Humans .......... 622
2.4.6 Effect on Plants, Animals, and Humans ............... 623
2.4.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 624
2.5 Barium .................................................... 627
Michael Jaritz
2.5.1 Introduction ........................................ 627
2.5.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 627
2.5.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............ 627
2.5.2.2 Analytical Methods .......................... 627
2.5.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products and Recycling ........................ 628
2.5.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms .................................... 628
2.5.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and
Humans .............................................. 630
2.5.6 Effect on Plants, Animals, and Humans ............... 630
2.5.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 632
3 Aluminum .................................................. 635
Robert A. Yokel
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 635
3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................... 635
3.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .................... 635
3.2.2 Analytical Methods .................................. 637
3.3 Sources, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste Products and
Recycling ................................................. 641
3.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Beverages ................................................. 642
3.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination in Plants, Animals, and Humans ................ 645
3.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................... 648
3.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............. 652
4 Antimony .................................................. 659
Markus A. Rish
4.1 Introduction .............................................. 659
4.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................... 659
4.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .................... 659
4.2.2 Analytical Methods .................................. 659
4.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, Recycling ....................................... 660
4.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in Living
Organisms ................................................. 661
4.4.1 Emissions, and Air and Water Quality ................ 661
4.4.2 Biotransformation and antimony resistance ........... 661
4.4.3 Antimony in Soil .................................... 662
4.4.4 Antimony in Plants .................................. 663
4.4.5 Antimony in Human Foods and Diets ................... 663
4.4.6 Antimony in Humans and Animals ...................... 664
4.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants, Animals
and Humans ................................................ 664
4.6 Effects on Animals and Humans ............................. 665
4.6.1 Acute Effects on Animals and Humans ................. 665
4.6.2 Genotoxicity and Cytotoxicity ....................... 666
4.6.3 Miscellaneous Biochemical Effects ................... 666
4.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations
(see also Part II, Chapter 8) ............................. 667
5 Bismuth ................................................... 671
Aurora D. Neagoe
5.1 Introduction .............................................. 671
5.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................... 671
5.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, Recycling ....................................... 674
5.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in Living
Organisms ................................................. 676
5.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plant, Animals, and
Humans .................................................... 677
5.6 Effects on Plants, Animals and Humans ..................... 680
5.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............. 683
6 Cadmium ................................................... 689
Robert F. M. Herber
6.1 Introduction .............................................. 689
6.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................... 690
6.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .................... 690
6.2.2 Analytical Methods .................................. 691
6.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ................................... 691
6.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in Living
Organisms ................................................. 693
6.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants, Animals
and Humans ................................................ 696
6.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................... 701
6.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............. 704
7 Chromium .................................................. 709
Barbara Stoecker
7.1 Introduction .............................................. 709
7.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical Methods ... 709
7.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .................... 709
7.2.2.1 Analytical Methods: Total Chromium
(see Part V, Chapter 2) ..................... 710
7.2.2.2 Analytical Methods: Chromium Speciation
(see Part V, Chapter 3) ..................... 711
7.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ................................... 713
7.3.1 Occurrence, Production, Important Compounds, and
Uses ................................................ 713
7.3.2 Waste Products and Recycling ........................ 714
7.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in Living
Organisms ................................................. 715
7.4.1 Distribution in the Environment: Soil, Air, and
Water ............................................... 715
7.4.2 Distribution in Foods ............................... 716
7.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and
Humans .................................................... 717
7.5.1 Uptake and Distribution of Chromium in Plants ....... 717
7.5.2 Uptake, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion of
Chromium in Animals and Humans ...................... 718
7.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................... 719
7.6.1 General Remarks ..................................... 719
7.6.2 Effects in Microorganisms, Plants, and Water
Organisms ........................................... 720
7.6.3 Effects in Domestic Animals ......................... 720
7.6.4 Effects in Humans ................................... 720
7.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations
(see also Part II, Chapter 8) ............................. 721
8 The Copper Group .......................................... 731
8.1 Copper .................................................... 731
Berislav Momčilović
8.1.1 Introduction ........................................ 731
8.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 731
8.1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............ 731
8.1.2.2 Analytical Methods .......................... 732
8.1.1.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds,
Uses, Waste Products, and Recycling ......... 732
8.1.3.1 Occurrence and Production ................... 732
8.1.3.2 Uses ........................................ 733
8.1.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms .................................... 734
8.1.4.1 Microorganisms .............................. 735
8.1.4.2 Aquatic Plants .............................. 735
8.1.4.3 Aquatic Invertebrates ....................... 735
8.1.4.4 Fish ........................................ 735
8.1.4.5 Terrestrial Plants .......................... 736
8.1.4.6 Terrestrial Invertebrates ................... 736
8.1.4.7 Terrestrial Mammals and Humans .............. 736
8.1.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants,
Animals, and Humans ................................. 737
8.1.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .............. 738
8.1.6.1 Effects on Microorganisms and Plants ........ 739
8.1.6.2 Deficiency Symptoms ......................... 740
8.1.6.3 Effects on Animals .......................... 741
8.1.6.4 Effects on Humans ........................... 742
8.1.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 745
8.2 Silver .................................................... 751
Patrick J. Doherty
8.2.1 Introduction ........................................ 751
8.2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 751
8.2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............ 751
8.2.2.2 Analytical Methods (see also Part V) ........ 752
8.2.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling ....................... 753
8.2.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms .................................... 756
8.2.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Animals and
Humans .............................................. 757
8.2.6 Effects on Animals and Humans ....................... 758
8.2.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 761
8.3 Gold ...................................................... 765
Koji Ishida
8.3.1 Introduction ........................................ 765
8.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ............................................. 765
8.3.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ............ 765
8.3.2.2 Gold Compounds .............................. 766
8.3.2.3 Analytical Methods .......................... 767
8.3.3 Sources, Production, Uses, and Recycling ............ 768
8.3.4 Distribution in the Environment and in Living
Organisms ........................................... 769
8.3.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Animals and
Humans .............................................. 770
8.3.6 Effects on Animals and Humans ....................... 770
8.3.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ....... 771
9 Gallium ................................................... 775
Thomas L. Ziegler, Kevin K. Divine and Peter L. Goering
9.1 Introduction .............................................. 775
9.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................... 775
9.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .................... 775
9.2.2 Analytical Methods .................................. 776
9.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ................................... 776
9.3.1 Occurrence and Production ........................... 776
9.3.2 Important Compounds and Uses ........................ 777
9.3.3 Waste Products and Recycling ........................ 777
9.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in Living
Organisms ................................................. 778
9.5 Uptake, Absorption in Plants, Animals, and Humans ......... 778
9.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................... 780
9.6.1 Effects on Aquatic Animals .......................... 780
9.6.2 Acute Effects on Mammals (and Humans) ............... 780
9.6.3 Chronic Effects on Mammals .......................... 781
9.6.4 Mutagenic and Teratogenic Effects ................... 781
9.6.5 Miscellaneous Biochemical Effects ................... 782
9.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............. 782
10 Germanium ................................................ 787
Michael Glei
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 787
10.2 Physical and Chemical Properties ......................... 787
10.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .................. 787
10.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................ 788
10.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling .................................. 788
10.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ......................................... 789
10.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and
Humans ................................................... 789
10.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ................... 790
10.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 791
11 Hafnium .................................................. 795
Mihàly Szilàgyi
11.1 Introduction ............................................. 795
11.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 795
11.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .................. 795
11.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................ 796
11.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling .................................. 796
11.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ......................................... 797
11.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and
Humans ................................................... 797
11.5.1 Plants ............................................ 797
11.5.2 Absorption and Retention in Animals and Humans .... 797
11.5.3 Transportation in Animals ......................... 798
11.5.4 Distribution in Animals ........................... 798
11.6 Effects on Animals and Humans ............................ 798
11.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 798
12 Indium ................................................... 801
Emily F. Madden, Carolyn J. Anderson and Peter L. Goering
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 801
12.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 801
12.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .................. 801
12.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................ 801
12.3 Sources, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste Products and
Recycling ................................................ 802
12.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods and in Living
Organisms ................................................ 803
12.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination in Animals, and Humans ....................... 804
12.6 Effects on Animals and Humans ............................ 804
12.6.1 Acute Effects ..................................... 804
12.6.2 Chronic Effects ................................... 806
12.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 807
13 The Iron Group ........................................... 811
13.1 Iron ..................................................... 811
Klaus Schümann and Bernd Elsenhans
13.1.1 Introduction ...................................... 811
13.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ........................................... 811
13.1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ......... 811
13.1.2.2 Analytical Methods ....................... 812
13.1.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling ..................... 812
13.1.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and
in Living Organisms ............................... 813
13.1.4.1 Environmental Problems Related to Steel
Production ............................... 813
13.1.4.2 Iron and the Environment ................. 814
13.1.4.3 Iron Distribution in Food and in Living
Organisms ................................ 815
13.1.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals,
and Humans ........................................ 816
13.1.5.1 Plants ................................... 816
13.1.5.2 Animals and Humans ....................... 816
13.1.6 Effect on Plants, Animals, and Humans ............. 818
13.1.6.1 Plants ................................... 818
13.1.6.2 Animals and Humans ....................... 818
13.1.7 Hazards of excessive iron intake .................. 819
13.1.7.1 Acute effects ............................ 819
13.1.7.2 Chronic Effects .......................... 820
13.2 Cobalt ................................................... 825
Gerhard N. Schrauzer
13.2.1 Introduction ...................................... 825
13.2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ........................................... 825
13.2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ......... 825
13.2.2.2 Analytical Methods
(see also Part V, Chapter 2) ............. 827
13.2.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling ..................... 827
13.2.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and
in Living Organisms ............................... 829
13.2.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transportation and
Distribution, and Metabolism and Elimination in
Plants, Animals, and Humans ....................... 829
13.2.6 Effects on Microorganisms, Plants, Animals, and
Humans ............................................ 830
13.2.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ..... 835
13.3 Nickel ................................................... 841
F. William Sunderman Jr.
13.3.1 Introduction ...................................... 841
13.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ........................................... 841
13.3.2.1 General Properties ....................... 841
13.3.2.2 Inorganic, Water-oluble Nickel
Compounds ................................ 842
13.3.2.3 Inorganic, Waternsoluble Nickel
Compounds ................................ 842
13.3.2.4 Nickel Carbonyl .......................... 842
13.3.2.5 Analytical Methods and Speciation ........ 842
13.3.3 Production, Uses, Waste Products, Recycling,
Distribution in the Environment ................... 843
13.3.4 Distribution in Plants, Microorganisms, Animals,
Humans, and Foods ................................. 845
13.3.5 Uptake, Transport, Distribution, Metabolism, and
Elimination in Animals and Humans ................. 847
13.3.5.1 Uptake and Absorption .................... 847
13.3.5.2 Distribution and Kinetics ................ 849
13.3.5.3 Metabolism ............................... 850
13.3.6 Effects on Animals and Humans ..................... 851
13.3.6.1 Nutritional Essentiality and
Deficiency ............................... 851
13.3.6.2 Toxicity of Nickel Compounds in
Animals and Humans ....................... 851
13.3.6.3 Carcinogenic Effects in Animals and
Humans ................................... 854
13.3.6.4 Reproductive and Teratogenic Effects
in Animals and Humans .................... 855
13.3.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ..... 856
14 The Lanthanides .......................................... 867
Peter L. Goering
14.1 Introduction ............................................. 867
14.2 Physicohemical Properties and Analytical Methods ......... 867
14.3 Sources, Production, and Uses ............................ 868
14.4 Distribution in the Environment and in Living
Organisms ................................................ 871
14.5 Uptake, Absorption, Accumulation in Animals and Humans ... 872
14.6 Effects in Animals and Humans ............................ 872
14.6.1 Cytotoxic Effects ................................. 872
14.6.2 Biochemical Effects ............................... 873
14.6.3 Acute Effects in Animals and Humans ............... 874
14.6.4 Chronic Effects in Animals and Humans ............. 875
14.6.5 Mutagenic, Carcinogenic, and Teratogenic
Effects ........................................... 875
14.7 Hazard Evaluation ........................................ 875
15 Lead ..................................................... 879
Lars Gerhardsson
15.1 Introduction ............................................. 879
15.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 879
15.2.1 Analytical Methods ................................ 880
15.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products and Recycling ................................... 880
15.3.1 Protection ........................................ 882
15.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ......................................... 882
15.5 Uptake, Absorption, Metabolism and Elimination in
Plants, Animals, and Humans .............................. 885
15.5.1 Plants ............................................ 885
15.5.2 Animals and Humans ................................ 885
15.5.2.1 Inhalation ............................... 885
15.5.2.2 Ingestion ................................ 886
15.5.2.3 Skin ..................................... 886
15.5.2.4 Distribution ............................. 886
15.5.2.5 Elimination .............................. 887
15.5.2.6 Lead Compartment Model ................... 888
15.5.2.7 Biological Monitoring of Exposure ........ 889
15.6 Effects on Plants, Animals and Humans .................... 890
15.6.1 Nervous System .................................... 890
15.6.2 Blood and Bloodorming Organs ...................... 891
15.6.3 Kidney ............................................ 891
15.6.4 Gastrointestinal Tract ............................ 892
15.6.5 Cardiovascular System ............................. 892
15.6.6 Genotoxitity ...................................... 892
15.6.7 Reproductive Effects .............................. 894
15.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 894
16 Manganese ................................................ 901
Ulrich Schäfer
16.1 Introduction ............................................. 901
16.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 902
16.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .................. 902
16.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................ 903
16.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling .................................. 904
16.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ......................................... 909
16.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and
Humans ................................................... 912
16.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ................... 916
16.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ............ 923
17 Mercury .................................................. 931
G. Drasch, M. Horvat and M. Stoeppler
17.1 Introduction ............................................. 931
17.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods .................................................. 932
17.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .................. 932
17.2.1.1 Metallic Mercury ......................... 932
17.2.1.2 Inorganic Ions of Mercury ................ 932
17.2.1.3 Organic Mercury Compounds ................ 933
17.2.2 Analytical Methods ................................ 933
17.2.2.1 Sample Collection and Storage ............ 933
17.2.2.2 Sample Pre-reatment
(see also Chapters V.2 and V.3) .......... 936
17.2.2.3 Determination of Total Mercury
(see also Part V, Chapter 2) ............. 936
17.2.2.4 Speciation
(see also Part V, Chapter 3) ............. 938
17.2.2.5 Quality Control/Quality Assessment ....... 942
17.3 Sources, Production and Uses, Waste Products, and
Recycling ................................................ 942
17.3.1 Sources and Production ............................ 942
17.3.2 Uses .............................................. 943
17.3.3 Waste Products .................................... 945
17.3.4 Recycling ......................................... 945
17.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ......................................... 946
17.4.1 Distribution in the Environment ................... 946
17.4.1.1 Mercury Emissions to the Environment ...... 946
17.4.1.2 Mercury Species in the Environment ........ 948
17.4.1.3 Mercury in the Atmosphere ................. 949
17.4.1.4 Mercury in Soil ........................... 951
17.4.1.5 Mercury in Water Systems .................. 951
17.4.1.6 The Mercury Cycle in the Environment ...... 954
17.4.2 Food Chain, Plants and Animals .................... 956
17.4.2.1 Terrestrial Environment ................... 956
17.4.2.2 Aquatic Environment ....................... 957
17.4.3 Mercury in Human Tissues and Body Fluids .......... 960
17.4.3.1 Mercury in Urine .......................... 960
17.4.3.2 Mercury in Blood .......................... 960
17.4.3.3 Mercury in Tissues ........................ 960
17.4.3.4 Mercury in Hair ........................... 961
17.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and
Humans ................................................... 961
17.5.1 Plants ............................................ 961
17.5.2 Animals ........................................... 962
17.5.2.1 Fish, Reptiles, and Amphibians ........... 962
17.5.2.2 Mammals and Birds ........................ 962
17.5.3 Humans ............................................ 963
17.5.3.1 Elemental Mercury ........................ 963
17.5.3.2 Ionized Inorganic Mercury ................ 964
17.5.3.3 Organic Mercury .......................... 965
17.6 Effects on Microorganisms, Plants, Animals, and Humans ... 967
17.6.1 Effects on Microorganisms ......................... 967
17.6.2 Effects on Plants ................................. 967
17.6.3 Effects on Animals ................................ 968
17.6.3.1 Effects on Fish and Aquatic
Invertebrates ............................ 968
17.6.3.2 Effects on Birds ......................... 968
17.6.3.3 Effects on Mammals ....................... 969
17.6.4 Acute Effects on Humans ........................... 970
17.6.4.1 Elemental Mercury ........................ 970
17.6.4.2 Ionized Inorganic Mercury ................ 971
17.6.4.3 Organic Mercury .......................... 972
17.6.5 Chronic Effects on Animals and Humans ............. 972
17.6.5.1 Central Nervous System ................... 972
17.6.5.2 Dental Amalgam ........................... 974
17.6.5.3 Coronary Heart Disease ................... 975
17.6.6 Immunotoxicity .................................... 976
17.6.7 Mutagenic, Carcinogenic, and Teratogenic
Effects ........................................... 977
17.6.7.1 Genotoxicity and Mutagenesis ............. 977
17.6.7.2 Cancerogenicity .......................... 977
17.6.7.3 Reproduction ............................. 978
17.6.8 Child Development ................................. 978
17.6.9 Treatment for Mercury Poisoning, Antagonists ...... 980
17.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations,
Prevention and Control ................................... 981
17.7.1 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations
for Humans ........................................ 981
17.7.2 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations
for Wildlife ...................................... 983
17.7.3 Prevention and Control ............................ 983
18 Molybdenum .............................................. 1007
Manfred K. Anke
18.1 Introduction ............................................ 1007
18.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1008
18.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ................................. 1009
18.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and Living
Organisms ............................................... 1010
18.4.1 Distribution in the Environment .................. 1010
18.4.1.1 Rocks and Soils ......................... 1010
18.4.1.2 Water and Air ........................... 1010
18.4.1.3 Flora ................................... 1011
18.4.2 Food and Beverages ............................... 1012
18.4.3 Living Organisms ................................. 1013
18.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism, and Elimination in Animals and Man .......... 1014
18.5.1 Intake ........................................... 1014
18.5.2 Absorption, Transportation, and Distribution ..... 1016
18.5.3 Metabolism, Excretion, Apparent Absorption
Rate, and Balance ................................ 1017
18.5.4 Interactions ..................................... 1018
18.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................. 1019
18.6.1 Essentiality to the Flora; Nitrogenase and
Nitrate Reductase ................................ 1019
18.6.2 Molybdenum-ofactor ............................... 1019
18.6.2.1 Xanthine Oxidase Family ................. 1020
18.6.2.2 Sulfite Oxidase and the Assimilatory
Nitrate Reductase Family ................ 1022
18.6.2.3 DMSO Reductase Family ................... 1023
18.6.3 Essentiality to the Fauna; Symptoms of
Deficiency ....................................... 1023
18.6.4 Essentiality to Humans ........................... 1025
18.6.5 Toxicity to the Flora ............................ 1026
18.6.6 Toxicity to the Fauna ............................ 1026
18.6.7 Toxicity to Humans ............................... 1028
18.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ........... 1029
19 Niobium (Nb) (Columbium) ................................ 1039
Peter L. Goering and Thomas L. Ziegler
19.1 Introduction ............................................ 1039
19.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1039
19.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................. 1039
19.2.2 Analytical Methods ............................... 1040
19.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ................................. 1040
19.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ........................................ 1041
19.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants, Animals,
and Humans .............................................. 1042
19.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................. 1043
19.6.1 Acute Effects in Mammals ......................... 1043
19.6.2 Chronic Effects in Mammals ....................... 1044
19.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ........... 1044
20 Platinum-Group Metals ................................... 1047
Klaus Hoppstock and Bernd Sures
20.1 Introduction ............................................ 1047
20.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1048
20.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................. 1048
20.2.2 Analytical Methods ............................... 1048
20.2.2.1 Total Element Content Determination ..... 1050
20.2.2.2 Determination of Element Species ........ 1052
20.2.2.3 Quality Assurance/Quality Control ....... 1053
20.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ................................. 1054
20.3.1 Sources and Production ........................... 1054
20.3.2 Important Compounds and Uses ..................... 1054
20.3.3 Waste Products and Recycling ..................... 1058
20.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Food, and in
Living Organisms ........................................ 1059
20.4.1 PGM Emission from Catalytic Converters ........... 1060
20.4.2 PGMs in Environmental Matrices ................... 1062
20.4.3 PGMs in the Biosphere and Food ................... 1065
20.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and
Humans .................................................. 1068
20.5.1 Plants ........................................... 1068
20.5.2 Animals .......................................... 1069
20.5.3 Humans ........................................... 1070
20.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................. 1070
20.6.1 Genotoxicity ..................................... 1070
20.6.2 Carcinogenicity .................................. 1072
20.6.3 Toxicological Effects ............................ 1072
20.6.4 Sensitization .................................... 1073
20.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ........... 1074
21 Tantalum ................................................ 1087
Kevin K. Divine and Peter L. Goering
21.1 Introduction ............................................ 1087
21.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1087
21.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................. 1087
21.2.2 Analytical Methods ............................... 1087
21.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds and Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling ........................... 1088
21.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ........................................ 1090
21.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants, Animals,
and Humans .............................................. 1090
21.6 Effects on Animals and Humans ........................... 1091
21.6.1 Acute Effects on Animals ......................... 1091
21.6.2 Chronic Effects on Animals and Humans ............ 1092
21.6.3 Miscellaneous Biochemical Effects ................ 1093
21.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ........... 1094
22 Thallium ................................................ 1099
Hans P. Bertram and Cornelia Bertram
22.1 Introduction ............................................ 1099
22.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1099
22.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................. 1099
22.2.2 Analytical Methods ............................... 1099
22.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, and
Waste Products .......................................... 1100
22.3.1 Occurrence ....................................... 1100
22.3.2 Production ....................................... 1100
22.3.3 Important Compounds and their Uses ............... 1102
22.3.4 Waste Products and Industrial Emissions .......... 1102
22.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ........................................ 1102
22.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants, Animals,
and Humans .............................................. 1103
22.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................. 1104
22.6.1 Effects on Plants ................................ 1104
22.6.2 Acute Effects on Animals and Humans .............. 1104
22.6.3 Chronic Effects on Animals and Humans,
Carcinogenic, and Teratogenic Effects ............ 1107
22.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ........... 1108
23 Tin ..................................................... 1113
Jean Pierre Anger
23.1 Introduction ............................................ 1113
23.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1113
23.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................. 1113
23.2.1.1 Tin and Inorganic Tin Salts ............. 1113
23.2.1.2 Organotin Compounds ..................... 1113
23.2.2 Analytical Methods for Tin Determination ......... 1114
23.2.2.1 Determination of Total Tin .............. 1114
23.2.2 Speciation of Tin ................................ 1115
23.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ................................. 1116
23.3.1 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, and
Uses ............................................. 1116
23.3.1.1 Inorganic Tin Compounds ................. 1116
23.3.1.2 Organotin Compounds ..................... 1116
23.4 Distribution in the Environment, Foods, and Living
Organisms ............................................... 1117
23.4.1 Contamination of the Environment ................. 1117
23.4.1.1 Inorganic Tin ........................... 1117
23.4.1.2 Organic Tin ............................. 1118
23.4.2 Contamination of Food and Living organisms ....... 1119
23.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants, Animals
and Humans .............................................. 1120
23.5.1 Tin and Inorganic Tin Salts ...................... 1120
23.5.2 Organotin Compounds .............................. 1116
23.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................. 1120
23.6.1 Biochemical Effects in Experimental Toxicology ... 1121
23.6.2 Toxicological Effects ............................ 1121
23.6.2.1 Toxicity in Aquatic Organisms ........... 1121
23.6.2.2 Toxicity to Animals and Humans .......... 1122
23.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ........... 1123
24 Titanium ................................................ 1125
Manfred Anke and Mathias Seifert
24.1 Introduction ............................................ 1125
24.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1125
24.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................. 1125
24.2.2 Analytical Methods ............................... 1126
24.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Production, and Recycling ............................... 1126
24.3.1 Occurrence and Production ........................ 1126
24.3.2 Important Compounds and Uses ..................... 1127
24.3.3 Waste Production ................................. 1128
24.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Food, and in
Animals ................................................. 1128
24.4.1 Distribution in the Environment .................. 1128
24.4.1.1 Rocks and Soil .......................... 1128
24.4.1.2 Water and Air ........................... 1128
24.4.1.3 Flora ................................... 1129
24.4.2 Food ............................................. 1129
24.4.2.1 Vegetable Food .......................... 1129
24.4.2.2 Animal Food, Beverages, Intake through
Foodstuffs .............................. 1130
24.4.3 Animals .......................................... 1131
24.5 Intake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism, and Elimination in Animals and Humans ....... 1132
24.5.1 Intake ........................................... 1132
24.5.2 Absorption, Transportation, and Distribution ..... 1133
24.5.3 Elimination ...................................... 1133
24.6 Effects in Plants, Animals, and Humans .................. 1134
24.6.1 Essentiality and Beneficial Role ................. 1134
24.6.2 Essentiality in Fauna and Man .................... 1135
24.6.3 Pharmacological Effects .......................... 1135
24.6.4 Toxicity in Flora ................................ 1136
24.6.5 Toxicity in Fauna and Man ........................ 1136
24.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ........... 1137
25 Tungsten ................................................ 1141
Thomas Kraus
25.1 Introduction ............................................ 1141
25.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1141
25.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................. 1141
25.2.2 Analytical Methods
(see also Part V, Chapter 2) ..................... 1141
25.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ................................. 1142
25.4 Distribution in the Environment ......................... 1142
25.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants, Animals,
and Humans .............................................. 1143
25.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................. 1143
25.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ........... 1144
26 Actinides and Decay Products ............................ 1147
26.1 Thorium ................................................. 1147
Dunstana Melo and Werner Burkart
26.1.1 Introduction ..................................... 1147
26.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods .......................................... 1147
26.1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ........ 1147
26.1.2.2 Analytical Methods ...................... 1147
26.1.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling .................... 1148
26.1.3.1 Occurrence and Production ............... 1148
26.1.3.2 Uses .................................... 1148
26.1.3.3 Waste Products and Recycling ............ 1149
26.1.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and
in Living Organisms .............................. 1149
26.1.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants,
Animals, and Humans .............................. 1149
26.1.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ........... 1151
26.1.6.1 Acute Effects on Animals and Humans ..... 1151
26.1.6.2 Mutagenic, Carcinogenic, and
Teratogenic Effects ..................... 1151
26.1.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations .... 1152
26.2 Uranium ................................................. 1157
Dunstana Melo and Werner Burkart
26.2.1 Introduction ..................................... 1157
26.2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods .......................................... 1157
26.2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ........ 1157
26.2.2.2 Analytical Methods ...................... 1157
26.2.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling .................... 1158
26.2.3.1 Occurrence and Production ............... 1158
26.2.3.2 Uses .................................... 1159
26.2.3.3 Waste Products and Recycling ............ 1159
26.2.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ................................. 1159
26.2.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants,
Animals, and Humans .............................. 1160
26.2.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ........... 1163
26.2.6.1 Acute Effects on Animals and Humans ..... 1163
26.2.6.2 Mutagenic, Carcinogenic, and
Teratogenic Effects ..................... 1163
26.2.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations .... 1164
26.3 Actinium, Protactinium, and Transuranium Actinides ...... 1165
Dunstana Melo and Werner Burkart
26.3.1 Introduction ..................................... 1165
26.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Analytical
Methods .......................................... 1165
26.3.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ........ 1165
26.3.2.2 Analytical Methods ...................... 1165
26.3.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses,
Waste Products, and Recycling .................... 1166
26.3.3.1 Occurrence and Production ............... 1166
26.3.3.2 Uses .................................... 1167
26.3.3.3 Waste Products and Recycling ............ 1167
26.3.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and
in Living Organisms .............................. 1167
26.3.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants,
Animals, and Humans .............................. 1167
26.3.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans ........... 1168
26.3.6.1 Acute Effects on Animals and Humans ..... 1168
26.3.6.2 Mutagenic, Carcinogenic, and
Teratogenic Effects ..................... 1168
26.3.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations .... 1168
27 Vanadium ................................................ 1171
Manfred K. Anke
27.1 Introduction ............................................ 1171
27.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1171
27.2.1 History .......................................... 1171
27.2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties ................. 1172
27.2.3 Analytical Methods ............................... 1172
27.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, and
Waste Products .......................................... 1172
27.3.1 Sources .......................................... 1172
27.3.2 Industrial Production Use of Vanadium, and
Waste Products ................................... 1172
27.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ........................................ 1173
27.4.1 Distribution in the Environment .................. 1173
27.4.1.1 Rocks ................................... 1173
27.4.1.2 Soil .................................... 1173
27.4.1.3 Air and Water ........................... 1174
27.4.1.4 Flora ................................... 1174
27.4.2 Food ............................................. 1175
27.4.2.1 Vegetable Food .......................... 1175
27.4.2.2 Animal Food and Beverages ............... 1176
27.4.3 Animals and Humans ............................... 1176
27.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Animals and Humans ........ 1177
27.5.1 Vanadium Intake .................................. 1177
27.5.2 Absorption and Transportation .................... 1178
27.5.3 Distribution ..................................... 1179
27.5.4 Elimination ...................................... 1179
27.6 Effects in Plants, Animals and Humans ................... 1180
27.6.1 Essentiality to Plants ........................... 1180
27.6.2 Essentiality to Animals .......................... 1181
27.6.3 Essentiality to Humans ........................... 1182
27.6.4 Pharmacological Effects .......................... 1183
27.6.5 Toxicity to Plants ............................... 1183
27.6.6 Toxicity to Animals .............................. 1183
27.6.7 Toxicity to Humans ............................... 1184
27.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ........... 1185
28 Yttrium ................................................. 1193
Jan W. Dobrowolski
28.1 Introduction ............................................ 1193
28.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1193
28.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties
(see also McGill 2002) ........................... 1193
28.2.2 Analytical Methods
(see also Part V, Chapter 2) ..................... 1194
28.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste
Products, and Recycling ................................. 1195
28.3.1 Occurrence and Production ........................ 1195
28.3.2 Uses and Recycling ............................... 1195
28.4 Distribution in the Environment, and in Living
Organisms ............................................... 1197
28.5 Uptake, Absorption, Transport and Distribution,
Metabolism and Elimination in Plants, Animals, and
Humans .................................................. 1198
28.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................. 1198
28.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations
(see also Part II, Chapter 8) ........................... 1199
29 Zinc .................................................... 1203
Svetlana Peganova and Klaus Eder
29.1 Introduction ............................................ 1203
29.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1203
29.2.1 Physical Properties .............................. 1203
29.2.2 Chemical Properties .............................. 1204
29.2.3 Analytical Methods ............................... 1204
29.3 Sources, Important Compounds, Uses, Waste Products,
and Recycling ........................................... 1205
29.3.1 Occurrence ....................................... 1205
29.3.2 Production, Important Compounds, and Uses ........ 1206
29.3.3 Waste Disposal ................................... 1207
29.3.4 Zinc Recycling ................................... 1207
29.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ........................................ 1207
29.4.1 Soils ............................................ 1207
29.4.2 Waters ........................................... 1208
29.4.3 Atmosphere ....................................... 1209
29.4.4 Sewage Sludge and Dumping Grounds ................ 1209
29.4.5 Food Chain, Plants, Animals, and Humans .......... 1210
29.4.5.1 Plants and Foods ........................ 1210
29.4.5.2 Animals ................................. 1211
29.4.5.3 Humans .................................. 1211
29.5 Uptake, Transport and Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination in plants, Animals, and Humans .............. 1212
29.5.1 Uptake and Distribution in Aquatic Plants ........ 1212
29.5.2 Uptake and Distribution in Terrestrial Plants .... 1212
29.5.3 Intake and Metabolism in Aquatic Animals ......... 1214
29.5.4 Intake in Mammals ................................ 1214
29.5.5 Absorption in Mammals ............................ 1216
29.5.6 Distribution in Mammals .......................... 1217
29.5.7 Excretion by Mammals ............................. 1217
29.5.8 Biological Halfife in Mammals .................... 1218
29.6 Effects on Plants, Animals and Humans ................... 1218
29.6.1 Effects on Plants and Aquatic Animals ............ 1218
29.6.2 Miscellaneous Biochemical Effects ................ 1220
29.6.3 Deficiency Symptoms in Plants, Animals, and
Humans ........................................... 1221
29.6.3.1 Zinc Deficiency in Plants ............... 1221
29.6.3.2 Zinc Deficiency in Animals .............. 1222
29.6.3.3 Zinc Deficiency in Humans ............... 1223
29.6.4 Acute Effects on Mammals (and Humans) ............ 1224
29.6.5 Chronic Effects on Mammals (and Humans) .......... 1225
29.6.6 Mutagenic, Carcinogenic, and Teratogenic
Effects .......................................... 1226
29.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations ........... 1227
30 Zirconium ............................................... 1241
Karl-Heinz Schaller
30.1 Introduction ............................................ 1241
30.2 Physical and Chemical Properties, and Analytical
Methods ................................................. 1241
30.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties ................. 1241
30.2.2 Analytical Methods ............................... 1241
30.3 Sources, Production, Important Compounds, Uses, and
Waste Products .......................................... 1242
30.3.1 Sources and Production ........................... 1242
30.3.2 Uses ............................................. 1242
30.3.3 Waste Products ................................... 1243
30.4 Distribution in the Environment, in Foods, and in
Living Organisms ........................................ 1243
30.5 Uptake, Absorption and Elimination in Plants, Animals,
and Humans .............................................. 1244
30.6 Effects on Plants, Animals, and Humans .................. 1245
30.7 Hazard Evaluation and Limiting Concentrations
(see also Part II, Chapter 8) ........................... 1245
Overview
Volume 1: General Aspects
Part I Element Distribution in the Environment ............... 1
1 The Composition of Earth's Upper Crust, Natural
Cycles of Elements, Natural Resources ................. 3
2 Chemical Compounds in the Atmosphere ................. 17
3 Deposition of Acids, Elements, and their Compounds ... 47
4 Macro Elements in Soil ............................... 67
5 Trace Elements and Compounds in Soil ................. 79
6 Transfer of Macro, Trace and Ultratrace Elements
in the Food Chain ................................... 101
7 Elements and Elemental Compounds in Waters and
the Aquatic Food Chain .............................. 127
8 Elements and Compounds in Sediments ................. 149
9 Elements and Compounds in Waste Materials ........... 163
10 Elements and Compounds on Abandoned Industrial
Sites ............................................... 199
11 Elements and Their Compounds in Indoor
Environments ........................................ 215
12 From the Biological System of the Elements to
Biomonitoring ....................................... 235
Part II Effects of Elements in the Food Chain and on Human
Health .............................................. 255
1 Essential and Toxic Effects of Elements on
Microorganisms ...................................... 257
2 Essential and Toxic Effects of Macro- Trace and
Ultratrace Elements for Higher Plants,
Interactions and Requirement ........................ 277
3 Essential and Toxic Effects of Macro, Trace, and
Ultratrace Elements in the Nutrition of Animals ..... 305
4 Essential and Toxic Effects of Macro, Trace, and
Ultratrace Elements in the Nutrition of Man ......... 343
5 Metal and Ceramic Implants .......................... 369
6 Metallothioneins .................................... 391
7 Influence of Metals on DNA .......................... 401
8 Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Metals and Metal
Compounds for Man ................................... 415
9 Mutagenicity ........................................ 433
10 Ecogenetics ......................................... 459
Volume 3: Nonmetals and Particular Aspects
Part IV Nonmetals .......................................... 1249
1 Boron .............................................. 1251
2 Nitrogen ........................................... 1261
3 Silicon ............................................ 1273
4 Phosphorus ......................................... 1285
5 Sulfur ............................................. 1297
6 Arsenic ............................................ 1321
7 Selenium ........................................... 1365
8 Tellurium .......................................... 1407
9 The Halogens ....................................... 1415
Part V Supplemental Aspects ............................... 1497
1 Standards and Regulations Regarding Metals and
Their Compounds in Environmental Materials,
Drinking Water, Food, Feeding-tuff, Consumer
Products, and Other Materials ...................... 1499
2 Analytical Chemistry of Element Determination
(Non-Nuclear and Nuclear) .......................... 1525
3 Element Speciation Analysis ........................ 1643
Part VI Supplementary Information
Glossary ..................................................... 1677
Tables and other Information ................................. 1695
Index ........................................................ 1703
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