Preface ......................................................... V
Overview ...................................................... XXI
List of Contributors ......................................... XXIV
Editoral Board ............................................... XXXI
Part I Element Distribution in the Environment ............... 1
1 The Composition of Earth's Upper Crust, Natural Cycles of
Elements, Natural Resources ................................. 3
Karl Hans Wedepohl
1.1 Formation of the Earth's Crust .............................. 3
1.2 Alteration of the Earth's Crust ............................. 4
1.3 Average Abundance of 25 Elements in Sedimentary, Magmatic
and Metamorphic Rock Species ................................ 7
1.4 Concentration and Transport of 25 Elements in Natural
Waters ...................................................... 8
1.5 Average Abundance of 25 Metals in Natural Raw Materials .... 10
1.6 Natural Resources .......................................... 12
1.7 Concluding Remarks ......................................... 14
2 Chemical Compounds in the Atmosphere ....................... 17
Hans Puxbaum and Andreas Limbeck
2.1 Introduction ............................................... 17
2.2 Sources of Metal Compounds in the Atmosphere ............... 17
2.3 Atmospheric Occurrence ..................................... 20
2.4 Size Distributions of Atmospheric Particles and Trace
Metals ..................................................... 22
2.5 Chemical Speciation ........................................ 25
2.6 Deposition (see also Part I, Chapter 3) .................... 28
2.7 Historical Trends .......................................... 31
2.8 Atmospheric Aerosol Sampling and Analysis
(for Biomonitoring, see Part Chapter 12) ................... 33
2.8.1 Sampling of Airborne Particles with Not Classifying
Methods .............................................. 33
2.8.2 Sampling with Classifying Methods .................... 34
2.8.3 Special Sampling Techniques .......................... 34
2.8.4 Diffusion Controlled Separation of Aerosols .......... 34
2.8.5 Bulk Analysis of the Elements ........................ 34
2.8.6 Compound-pecific Analysis ............................ 35
2.8.7 Single Particle Analysis and Surface
Characterization of Airborne Particles ............... 35
2.9 Source Analysis ............................................ 36
3 Deposition of Acids, Elements, and their Compounds ......... 47
H.J. Fiedler
3.1 Introduction ............................................... 47
3.2 Types of Atmospheric Deposition ............................ 47
3.2.1 Dry Deposition ....................................... 48
3.2.2 Occult Deposition .................................... 48
3.2.3 Wet and Bulk Deposition .............................. 48
3.3 Methods for Measuring Atmospheric Deposition in Forests .... 49
3.3.1 Throughfall .......................................... 49
3.4 Deposition of Elements and their Compounds ................. 50
3.4.1 Dust Deposition ...................................... 50
3.4.1.1 Natural Dusts ................................ 50
3.4.1.2 Industrial Dusts, Deposition of Heavy
Metals ....................................... 50
3.4.2 Deposition of Acid Pollutants ........................ 51
3.4.2.1 Sulfur Deposition ............................ 52
3.4.2.2 Nitrogen Deposition .......................... 53
3.4.3 Deposition of Alkalizing Substances and Basic
(Base) Cations ....................................... 54
3.4.4 Deposition of Sea-alt Particles and Chloride
Deposition ........................................... 55
3.5 Deposition and Forest Ecosystems ........................... 55
3.5.1 Site and Stand Dependence ............................ 55
3.5.1.1 Elevation .................................... 55
3.5.1.2 Soils ........................................ 55
3.5.1.3 Forest stands ................................ 56
3.5.2 Forest Decline ....................................... 57
3.5.2.1 Effects of pollutant combinations ............ 57
3.5.3 Critical Levels and Loads ............................ 57
3.5.3.1 Critical levels of sulfur .................... 58
3.5.3.2 Critical loads ............................... 58
3.5.3.3 Critical load of nitrogen .................... 59
3.5.3.4 Consequences of an increased nitrogen
deposition ................................... 59
3.5.3.5 Critical load of sulfur ...................... 60
3.5.3.6 Consequences of an increased sulfur
deposition ................................... 60
3.5.3.7 Critical load of acids; long-term effects
of acid deposition and acid formation on
terrestrial ecosystems ....................... 60
3.5.4 Change with Time ..................................... 62
4 Macro Elements in Soil ..................................... 67
H.J. Fiedler
4.1 Nonetals ................................................... 67
4.1.1 Nitrogen ............................................. 67
4.1.2 Phosphorus ........................................... 70
4.1.3 Sulfur ............................................... 71
4.1.4 Chlorine ............................................. 73
4.2 Metals ..................................................... 73
4.2.1 Exchangeable Bases ................................... 73
4.2.2 Sodium ............................................... 75
4.2.3 Potassium ............................................ 75
4.2.4 Magnesium ............................................ 77
4.2.5 Calcium .............................................. 77
5 Trace Elements and Compounds in Soil ....................... 79
Alina Kabata-endias and Wieslaw Sadurski
5.1 Introduction ............................................... 79
5.2 Trace Elements in Soil ..................................... 79
5.2.1 Origin, Forms, and Compounds ......................... 80
5.2.2 Background Ranges .................................... 83
5.3 Weathering ................................................. 83
5.3.1 Dissolution and Sorption ............................. 85
5.3.2 Soil Solution ........................................ 86
5.3.3 Speciation (see also Part II, Chapter 3) ............. 87
5.4 Soil-lant Transfer ......................................... 90
5.5 Contamination .............................................. 91
5.5.1 In-situ Methods ...................................... 93
5.5.2 Non-in-situ Methods .................................. 94
5.6 Environmental Quality Criteria ............................. 94
5.7 Final Remarks .............................................. 96
6 Transfer of Macro, Trace and Ultratrace Elements in
the Food Chain ............................................ 101
Manfred K. Anke
6.1 Introduction .............................................. 101
6.2 Terrestrial Indicator Plants of the Elemental Load ........ 102
6.2.1 The Element Content of Several Plant Species on
the Same Site ....................................... 103
6.2.2 Influence of Geological Origin of the Site on
the Macro, Trace and Ultratrace Element Contents
of Indicator Plants ................................. 106
6.2.3 Influence of Plant Age on the Macro, Trace and
Ultratrace Element Contents of Plants ............... 107
6.2.4 The Element Contents of Plant Stems, Leaves, and
Flowers ............................................. 109
6.3 Influence of Geological Origin of Soil on Macro, Trace
and Ultratrace Contents of the Terrestrial Food Chain ..... 111
6.4 Influence of Pollution on the Terrestrial Food Chain ...... 112
6.4.1 Cadmium ............................................. 113
6.4.2 Chromium ............................................ 115
6.4.3 Nickel .............................................. 116
6.4.4 Strontium ........................................... 118
6.5 The Influence of Conventional and Ecological (Organic)
Farming ................................................... 119
6.6 Macro, Trace and Ultratrace Elements in Foodstuffs ........ 120
6.7 Conclusions ............................................... 122
7 Elements and Elemental Compounds in Waters and
the Aquatic Food Chain .................................... 127
Biserka Raspor
7.1 Introduction .............................................. 127
7.1.1 Periodic Table of the Elements ...................... 127
7.1.1.1 Metals ...................................... 128
7.1.1.2 Nonmetals ................................... 128
7.1.1.3 Metalloids .................................. 129
7.1.1.4 Ionic Metal Compounds ....................... 129
7.1.1.5 Covalent Metal Compounds .................... 129
7.2 Hydration of Ions ......................................... 130
7.3 Metal Complex Formation ................................... 132
7.3.1 Labile Complexes .................................... 132
7.3.2 Inert Complexes ..................................... 132
7.4 Hard and Soft Acceptors and Donors ........................ 133
7.5 Bioavailability of Metals ................................. 135
7.5.1 Metal Uptake into the Organism ...................... 136
7.5.2 Accumulation of Elements ............................ 138
7.6 Aquatic Food Chain ........................................ 140
7.6.1 Concentration Factors ............................... 141
7.6.2 Trophic Levels ...................................... 142
7.6.3 Biomagnification .................................... 143
8 Elements and Compounds in Sediments ....................... 149
Ulrich Förstner and Wim Salomons
8.1 Introduction .............................................. 149
8.2 Remobilization of Metals from Polluted Sediments .......... 149
8.2.1 Acidity ............................................. 150
8.2.2 Salinity ............................................ 151
8.2.3 Complexing Agents ................................... 151
8.2.4 Oxidation/Reduction Processes ....................... 151
8.3 Sediment Management Strategies: Remedial Options .......... 153
8.3.1 In-Situ Remediation using Geochemical Engineering
Methods ............................................. 154
8.3.2 Natural Attenuation on Floodplain Sediments ......... 155
8.3.3 Subaqueous Depot and Capping ........................ 157
8.4 Managing Contaminated Sediments: A Holistic Approach ...... 158
9 Elements and Compounds in Waste Materials ................. 163
Ulrich Förstner
9.1 Introduction .............................................. 163
9.2 Waste Composition and Impact on Adjacent Media ............ 164
9.2.1 Household Waste and Industrial Waste ................ 164
9.2.2 Mining Waste ........................................ 166
9.2.3 Impact on Adjacent Media ............................ 167
9.3 Waste Treatment ........................................... 168
9.3.1 Chemical-hysical Treatment of Industrial Waste ...... 168
9.3.2 Waste Incineration .................................. 169
9.3.2.1 Slags and Ashes ............................. 170
9.3.2.2 Fly Ash Post-reatment ....................... 170
9.3.2.3 Smelting Processes .......................... 171
9.3.2.4 Treatment of Wastewater from Waste
Incineration Facilities (WIF) ............... 172
9.3.3 Stabilization of Wastes ............................. 173
9.3.3.1 Stabilizing Additives ....................... 173
9.3.3.2 Storage Minerals ............................ 174
9.4 Metals in Landfills ....................................... 175
9.4.1 Metals in "Reactor" Landfills ....................... 175
9.4.2 Metals and Final Storage Quality .................... 178
9.4.3 Geochemical Engineering Concept for Landfills ....... 180
9.5 Prognostic Tools for Metal Release from Wastes ............ 181
9.5.1 Factors Influencing Release of Metals from Solid
Waste Materials ..................................... 181
9.5.2 Test Procedures ..................................... 182
9.5.2.1 Development and Harmonization of Leaching
Test Procedures ............................. 182
9.5.3 Lysimeter Test on MSWI Residues ..................... 184
9.6 Material Management: Recycling of Metals .................. 185
9.6.1 Avoidance as the Primary Task of Pollution Control
Technology .......................................... 185
9.6.2 Waste Avoidance during Mining and Smelting .......... 186
9.6.3 Recycling of Industrial Waste ....................... 189
9.6.4 Limitations and Potentials of Metal Recycling ....... 190
9.6.5 Regional Material Management: An Example - Metal
Balances ............................................ 191
10 Elements and Compounds on Abandoned Industrial Sites ..... 199
Ulrich Förstner and Joachim Gerth
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 199
10.2 Treatment of Contaminated Industrial Sites ............... 199
10.2.1 Solidification/Stabilization ...................... 201
10.2.1.1 Cement ................................... 202
10.2.1.2 Glass .................................... 203
10.2.1.3 The pozzolanic effect .................... 203
10.2.1.4 Lime ..................................... 203
10.2.2 Washing and Electrochemical Methods ............... 203
10.2.2.1 Electrochemical Remediation .............. 205
10.3 Natural Attenuation ...................................... 205
10.3.1 General Description ............................... 205
10.3.2 Natural Attenuation Mechanisms .................... 206
10.3.3 Natural Attenuation Concepts ...................... 207
10.3.3.1 Pollutant Degradation Concept ............ 207
10.3.3.2 Immobilization Concept ................... 208
10.3.4 Potential of Application .......................... 211
11 Elements and Their Compounds in Indoor Environments ...... 215
Pat E. Rasmussen
11.1 Introduction ............................................. 215
11.2 Composition of Indoor Dust ............................... 216
11.2.1 Element Speciation ................................ 217
11.2.2 Particle Size ..................................... 217
11.3 Measurement of Elements in Indoor Environments ........... 218
11.3.1 Vacuum Methods .................................... 218
11.3.2 Dust and Metal Deposition Techniques .............. 220
11.3.3 Surface Wipe Techniques ........................... 221
11.3.4 Indoor Air Sampling ............................... 221
11.4 Relationships between Indoor and Outdoor Environments .... 224
11.4.1 Outdoor Sources ................................... 224
11.4.2 Element Enrichment in the Indoor Environment ...... 225
11.5 Sources of Elements in the Indoor Environment ............ 226
11.5.1 House Characteristics ............................. 227
11.5.2 Mode of Cooking ................................... 227
11.5.3 Activities of Residents ........................... 228
11.5.4 Consumer Products ................................. 228
11.6 Bioavailability of Metals in the Indoor Environment ...... 229
12 From the Biological System of the Elements to
Biomonitoring ............................................ 235
Bernd Markert, Stefan Fraenzle and Annette Fomin
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 235
12.2 From the Biological System of the Elements towards
Biomonitoring ............................................ 236
12.3 Definitions .............................................. 238
12.4 Comparison of Instrumental Measurement: Bioindicators/
biomonitors and Harmonization/Quality Control ............ 241
12.4.1 Instruments and Bioindicators ..................... 241
12.4.2 Precision and Accuracy ............................ 242
12.4.3 Calibration ....................................... 243
12.4.4 Harmonization ..................................... 244
12.4.5 An Example of Effect Biomonitoring ................ 245
12.5 Integrative Biomonitoring ................................ 246
12.5.1 The Multi-markered Bioindicator Concept (MMBC) .... 247
12.5.2 Environmental Specimen Banks ...................... 248
12.5.3 Time- and Site Integration ........................ 250
Part II Effects of Elements in the Food Chain and on Human
Health .............................................. 255
1 Essential and Toxic Effects of Elements on
Microorganisms ............................................ 257
Dietrich H. Nies
1.1 Introduction .............................................. 257
1.1.1 Bioelements ......................................... 257
1.1.2 Parameters Defining the Biological Impact of
a Chemical Element .................................. 257
1.1.2.1 Rule Number 1 (Availability rule) ........... 257
1.1.2.2 Rule Number 2 (Usefulness rule) ............. 260
1.1.2.3 Rule Number 3 (Toxicity rule) ............... 261
1.2 Biology of the Periodic System of the Elements ............ 261
1.2.1 Main Groups Containing Major Bioelements and some
Trace Elements ...................................... 261
1.2.1.1 Group IA (H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) ......... 261
1.2.1.2 Group IIA (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) .......... 261
1.2.1.3 Group IIIA (B, Al, Ga, In, Tl) .............. 262
1.2.1.4 Group IVA (C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb) ............... 262
1.2.1.5 Group VA (N, P, As, Sb, Bi) ................. 263
1.2.1.6 Group VIA (O, S, Se, Te, Po) ................ 263
1.2.1.7 Group VIIA (F, CI, Br, I, At) ............... 263
1.2.2 Transition Metals ................................... 264
1.2.2.1 Group VB (V, Nb, Ta) ........................ 264
1.2.2.2 Group VIB (Cr, Mo, W) ....................... 264
1.2.2.3 Group VIIB (Mn, Tc, Re) ..................... 265
1.2.2.4 Group VIIIB1 (Fe, Ru, Os) ................... 266
1.2.2.5 Group VIIIB2 (Co, Rh, Ir) ................... 266
1.2.2.6 Group VIIIB3 (Ni, Pd, Pt) ................... 267
1.2.2.7 Group IB (Cu, Ag, Au) ....................... 268
1.2.2.8 Group IIB (Zn, Cd, Hg) ...................... 269
2 Essential and Toxic Effects of Macro-Trace and
Ultratrace Elements for Higher Plants, Interactions and
Requirement ............................................... 277
Günther Schilling
2.1 Chemical Elements in Higher Plants and Their
Classification in Nutritional Science ..................... 277
2.2 Functions of Nutrient Elements in Higher Plants ........... 279
2.2.1 Principles of Substance Formation ................... 279
2.2.2 Special Effects of Beneficial Elements .............. 288
2.2.3 Visual Symptoms as Consequences of Nutritional
Disorders ........................................... 291
2.3 Mechanisms of Toxicity in Higher Plants ................... 295
2.4 Requirement of Mineral Nutrient Elements and its
Estimation for Crops ...................................... 297
3 Essential and Toxic Effects of Macro, Trace, and
Ultratrace Elements in the Nutrition of Animals ........... 305
Manfred K. Anke
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 305
3.1.1 Essentiality and Toxicity ........................... 305
3.1.2 Groups of Mineral Elements .......................... 306
3.1.3 The Identification of Essential Mineral Elements .... 307
3.1.4 Requirement and Recommendations of Mineral
Elements ............................................ 308
3.1.5 Pharmacological Levels of Essential Elements ........ 308
3.1.6 Interactions of Mineral Elements .................... 309
3.1.7 Toxic Levels of Mineral Elements .................... 310
3.1.8 Ecogenetics ......................................... 312
3.2 Essentiality and Toxicity of Mineral Elements ............. 312
3.2.1 Macro Elements ...................................... 312
3.2.2 Essentiality and Toxicity of Trace Elements
(see Table 3.3) ..................................... 314
3.2.2.1 Iron ........................................ 314
3.2.2.2 Iodine ...................................... 314
3.2.2.3 Copper ...................................... 314
3.2.2.4 Manganese ................................... 326
3.2.2.5 Zinc ........................................ 316
3.2.2.6 Cobalt ...................................... 316
3.2.2.7 Molybdenum .................................. 316
3.2.2.8 Selenium .................................... 317
3.2.2.9 Nickel ...................................... 317
3.2.3 Essentiality and Toxicity of Ultratrace Elements
(see Table 3.4) ..................................... 318
3.2.3.1 Fluorine ................................... 318
3.2.3.2 Chromium ................................... 321
3.2.3.3 Silicon .................................... 321
3.2.3.4 Arsenic .................................... 322
3.2.3.5 Cadmium .................................... 323
3.2.3.6 Lithium .................................... 325
3.2.3.7 Boron ...................................... 326
3.2.3.8 Lead ....................................... 327
3.2.3.9 Vanadium ................................... 327
3.2.3.10 Tungsten ................................... 327
3.2.3.11 Bromine .................................... 328
3.2.3.12 Aluminum ................................... 328
3.2.3.13 Rubidium ................................... 329
3.2.3.14 Titanium ................................... 330
3.3 Summary ................................................... 330
4 Essential and Toxic Effects of Macro, Trace, and
Ultratrace Elements in the Nutrition of Man ............... 343
Manfred K. Anke
4.1 Introduction .............................................. 343
4.2 Macro elements ............................................ 343
4.2.1 Normative Requirements and Recommendations for
Intake .............................................. 344
4.2.2 Macro element Intake of Adults with Mixed and
Ovolactovegetarian Diets ............................ 344
4.2.3 Macro element Concentration of the Dry Matter
Consumed ............................................ 346
4.2.4 Macro element Intake per kg Body Weight of Humans ... 346
4.2.5 Fecal Excretion and Apparent Absorption of Macro
elements ............................................ 347
4.2.6 Macro element Intake Measured by the Duplicate
Portion Technique and the Basket Method ............. 348
4.2.7 Intake of Macro elements Through Animal and
Vegetable Foodstuffs and Beverages .................. 348
4.3 Trace Elements ............................................ 349
4.3.1 Normative Requirements and Recommendations for
Intake .............................................. 349
4.3.2 Trace Element Intake of Adults with Mixed and
Ovolactovegetarian Diets ............................ 350
4.3.3 Trace Element Concentration of the Dry Matter
Consumed ............................................ 352
4.3.4 Trace Element Intake of Humans per kg Body Weight ... 352
4.3.5 Fecal Excretion and Apparent Absorption of Trace
Elements ............................................ 353
4.3.6 Trace Element Intake Measured by the Duplicate
Portion Technique and the Basket Method ............. 354
4.3.7 Intake of Trace Elements Through Animal and
Vegetarian Foodstuffs and Beverages ................. 354
4.4 Ultratrace Elements ....................................... 355
4.4.1 Normative Requirements and Recommendations for
Intake .............................................. 355
4.4.2 Ultratrace Element Intake of Adults with Mixed and
Ovolactovegetarian Diets ............................ 356
4.4.3 Ultratrace Element Concentration of the Dry Matter
Consumed ............................................ 357
4.4.4 Ultratrace Element Intake per kg Body Weight ........ 358
4.4.5 Fecal Excretion and Apparent Absorption of
Ultratrace Elements ................................. 359
4.4.6 Ultratrace Element Intake Measured by
the Duplicate Portion Technique and the Basket
Method .............................................. 360
4.4.7 Intake of Ultratrace Elements Through Animal and
Vegetable Foodstuffs and Beverages .................. 361
4.5 Summary ................................................... 361
5 Metal and Ceramic Implants ................................ 369
Hartmut F. Hildebrand
5.1 Introduction .............................................. 369
5.2 Alloys .................................................... 369
5.2.1 Alloys Used for Surgical Implants ................... 370
5.2.2 Dental Alloys ....................................... 370
5.2.3 Metals Used for Biomedical Alloys ................... 371
5.3 Risks: the State of the Art ............................... 372
5.3.1 Ion Release ......................................... 371
5.3.1.1 Alloys for Surgical Implants ................ 371
5.3.1.2 Dental Alloys ............................... 372
5.3.2 Wear Particles ...................................... 372
5.3.3 Ceramics ............................................ 373
5.3.3.1 Sintered Ceramics ........................... 373
5.3.3.2 Bioceramics as Bone Substitutes ............. 373
5.3.3.3 Carbon Materials ............................ 374
5.3.4 Tissular Reactions .................................. 375
5.3.5 Inflammatory Reactions .............................. 376
5.3.6 Immunologic Reactions ............................... 376
5.3.6.1 Sensitization and Allergy ................... 376
5.3.6.2 Alloys for Surgical Implants ................ 377
5.3.6.3 Dental Alloys ............................... 377
5.3.7 Induction of Cancer ................................. 378
5.4 In-vitro Toxicity Assessment .............................. 379
5.4.1 Cell Viability ...................................... 379
5.4.1.1 Liability of Tests .......................... 380
5.4.1.2 Influence of Metals on Cell Survival ........ 381
5.4.2 Inflammatory Response ............................... 381
5.4.2.1 Liability of Test ........................... 381
5.4.2.2 Influence of Metals on the Inflammatory
Response .................................... 383
6 Metallothioneins .......................................... 391
Bartolome Ribas
6.1 Introduction .............................................. 391
6.2 Physicohemical Characteristics ............................ 392
6.3 Biological Implications of MT ............................. 395
6.3.1 MT Analogues ........................................ 395
6.3.2 MT Complex with Methotrexate ........................ 395
6.3.3 MT and Anemia ....................................... 396
6.3.4 MT and Endocrine Pancreas ........................... 396
6.4 MT and Tolerance to Ionizing Radiation .................... 396
6.5 Clinical and Pathologic Involvement of MT ................. 397
7 Influence of Metals on DNA ................................ 401
Zeno Garban
7.1 Overview on Metals and DNA Interaction .................... 401
7.2 Steric Parameters of the DNA Macromolecule ................ 401
7.2.1 Steric Parameters depending on Residual
Nucleotides ......................................... 403
7.2.2 Steric Parameters depending on Nucleobase Pairs ..... 404
7.3 Interaction of DNA with Divalent Metal Ions ............... 405
7.3.1 Interaction with Alkaline-arth Biometals ............ 406
7.3.2 Interaction with Transition Biometals ............... 406
7.3.3 Interaction with Toxic Transition Metals ............ 407
7.4 Peculiarities of the SAR of DNA-M2+ Adducts ................ 407
8 Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Metals and Metal Compounds
for Man ................................................... 415
Marika Geldmacher-Mallinckrodt and Karl-Heinz Schaller
8.1 Introduction .............................................. 415
8.2 Mechanisms Responsible for Toxic Effects of Metals ........ 415
8.3 Role of Speciation and Way of Uptake ...................... 417
8.4 Acute Toxicity ............................................ 417
8.4.1 General ............................................. 417
8.4.2 Uptake and Distribution ............................. 418
8.4.3 Quantitative Assessment of Acute Toxicity of
Individual Metal Compounds .......................... 418
8.4.4 Symptoms of Acute Metal Poisoning ................... 420
8.5 Chronic Toxicity .......................................... 420
8.5.1 General ............................................. 420
8.5.1.1 Local Effects ............................... 421
8.5.1.2 Systemic Effects ............................ 421
8.5.1.3 Chronic Clinical Effects of Metal
Toxicity .................................... 422
8.5.2 Pathways of Chronic Exposure ........................ 422
8.5.2.1 Chronic Indoor Exposure ..................... 422
8.5.2.2 Chronic Environmental Exposure .............. 423
8.5.2.3 Chronic Occupational Exposure ............... 423
8.5.2.4 Chronic Iatrogenic Exposure ................. 424
8.5.2.5 Transplacental Transfer ..................... 424
8.6 Guidelines and Exposure Limits ............................ 424
8.6.1 Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality ............... 424
8.6.2 Air Quality Guidelines .............................. 424
8.6.3 Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) ....................... 424
8.6.4 Reference Values and Human Biological Monitoring
Values for Environmental Toxins ..................... 425
8.6.5 Occupational Exposure Limits ........................ 426
8.6.5.1 Threshold Limit Values (TLV) ................ 426
8.6.5.2 Maximum Allowable Concentration (MAC) ....... 427
8.6.5.3 Other Terms for Occupational Exposure
Limits ...................................... 427
8.6.6 Biological Monitoring and Biological Limits ......... 428
8.6.6.1 BEI Values .................................. 428
8.6.6.2 BAT Values .................................. 429
9 Mutagenicity .............................................. 433
Erich Gebhart
9.1 Introduction .............................................. 433
9.2 Mutagenicity .............................................. 434
9.2.1 Reactions of Metals with Nucleic Acids and
Proteins ............................................ 434
9.2.2 Induction of Molecular (Point) Mutations ............ 437
9.2.3 Induction of Chromosome and Genome Mutations ........ 439
9.2.4 Modulating Effects .................................. 442
9.3 Carcinogenicity ........................................... 443
9.3.1 Genetic and Cellular Mechanisms ..................... 445
9.3.2 Animal Models ....................................... 446
9.4 Teratogenicity ............................................ 448
9.5 Concluding Remarks ........................................ 449
10 Ecogenetics .............................................. 459
Marika Geldmacher Mallinckrodt
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 459
10.2 Bacteria ................................................. 459
10.3 Plants ................................................... 461
10.4 Mammals .................................................. 463
10.4.1 Mice .............................................. 463
10.4.2 Rats .............................................. 464
10.4.3 Dogs .............................................. 464
10.4.3 Humans ............................................ 465
10.4.3.1 Arsenic (see also Part IV, Chapter 6) .... 465
10.4.3.2 Calcium (see also Part III,
Chapter 2.3) ............................. 466
10.4.3.3 Copper (see also Part III,
Chapter 8.1) ............................. 466
10.4.3.4 Iron (see also Part III, Chapter 13.1) ... 468
10.4.3.5 Lead (see also Part III, Chapter 15) ..... 469
10.4.3.6 Magnesium (see also Part III,
Chapter 2.2) ............................. 469
10.4.3.7 Molybdenum (see also Part III,
Chapter 18) .............................. 470
10.4.3.8 Zinc (see also Part III, Chapter 29) ..... 470
Overview
Volume 2: Metals and Their Compounds
Part III Metals and their Compounds .......................... 477
1 Alkali Metals ....................................... 479
2 The Alkaline Earths ................................. 575
3 Aluminum ............................................ 635
4 Antimony ............................................ 659
5 Bismuth ............................................. 671
6 Cadmium ............................................. 689
7 Chromium ............................................ 709
8 The Copper Group .................................... 731
9 Gallium ............................................. 775
10 Germanium ........................................... 787
11 Hafnium ............................................. 795
12 Indium .............................................. 801
13 The Iron Group ...................................... 811
14 The Lanthanides ..................................... 867
15 Lead ................................................ 879
16 Manganese ........................................... 901
17 Mercury ............................................. 931
18 Molybdenum ......................................... 1007
19 Niobium (Nb) (Columbium) ........................... 1039
20 Platinum-roup Metals ............................... 1047
21 Tantalum ........................................... 1087
22 Thallium ........................................... 1099
23 Tin ................................................ 1113
24 Titanium ........................................... 1125
25 Tungsten ........................................... 1141
26 Actinides and Decay Products ....................... 1147
27 Vanadium ........................................... 1171
28 Yttrium ............................................ 1193
29 Zinc ............................................... 1203
30 Zirconium .......................................... 1241
Volume 3: Nonmetals and Particular Aspects
Part IV Nonmetals .......................................... 1249
1 Boron .............................................. 1251
2 Nitrogen ........................................... 1261
3 Silicon ............................................ 1273
4 Phosphorus ......................................... 1285
5 Sulfur ............................................. 1297
6 Arsenic ............................................ 1321
7 Selenium ........................................... 1365
8 Tellurium .......................................... 1407
9 The Halogens ....................................... 1415
Part V Supplemental Aspects ............................... 1497
1 Standards and Regulations Regarding Metals and
Their Compounds in Environmental Materials,
Drinking Water, Food, Feeding-tuff, Consumer
Products, and Other Materials ...................... 1499
2 Analytical Chemistry of Element Determination
(Non-Nuclear and Nuclear) .......................... 1525
3 Element Speciation Analysis ........................ 1643
Part VI Supplementary Information
Glossary ..................................................... 1677
Tables and other Information ................................. 1695
Index ........................................................ 1703
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